Mar 2021 – Written Exposition

CENSUS

Posted on 20th Mar 202118th Dec 2025 by writtenexposition

Mt 17:25; Mt 22:17; Mk 12:14

Greek – (κῆνσος) kḗnsos

Latin – census

English – census

KJV translation – tribute

The recent arrival in the post of our UK Census 2021 instructions, for online completion of the questions by Sunday 21 March, reminded me that not only is our English word ‘census’ derived from the Latin ‘census’ but also that the same Latin word was loaned to Greek and occurs three times in the New Testament, translated ‘tribute.’

Census-taking is not a recent development. Governments have been attempting to collect information on their citizens for many thousands of years and censuses were taken in such diverse regions as ancient China, Egypt, Rome and Israel. Whereas modern census returns are used for planning the funding and delivery of education, infrastructure, health, security and other vital public services, the information collected in the ancient world was for the purposes of taxation and/or military service. Certainly these two reasons lay behind the censuses recorded in the Bible.

The Old Testament mentions census-taking by Joshua (Josh 8:10), and King Saul (1 Sam 11:8; 13:15; 15:4) but the most famous are the two censuses shortly after the Exodus in the 15th century BCE, the census taken by King David about 1000 BCE, the Roman census around the time of Christ’s birth and another mentioned in a speech by Gamaliel in Acts 5:36. The latter in 6 CE met with resistance led by Judas of Galilee.

The census records in scripture, unfortunately, have become the target of critical scholarship and there is controversy surrounding the details given in the biblical accounts. Should you wish to investigate them, much has been written and is readily available online via Google searches relating to topics like: census figures in the book of Numbers, King David’s census, the census under Augustus Caesar, the census of Quirinius, the Theudas problem.

It strikes me as interesting that although in Latin the word ‘census’ means ‘roll’ or ‘registration’ it seems from its three occurrences in the Greek New Testament (Mt 17:25; Mt 22:17; Mk 12:14) that the Jews in the Roman province of Judaea at the time of Christ did not use it in its original sense. They used the word kḗnsos, not for the registration upon which the tax was based but for the actual tax itself. The KJV therefore translates kḗnsos as ‘tribute’, some modern versions translate it as ‘poll-tax.’ That tax was the ‘tributum capitis’ (head-tax) that the Romans imposed on everyone whose name was on the census. It did not apply to Roman citizens but to the population of the provinces ruled by Rome. All males aged 14 to 65 and females aged 12 to 65 were liable, including slaves.

It was a flat rate personal tax of one denarius (a Roman silver coin) per head. The census figures were updated regularly and based on these the Romans calculated how much each tax district owed. These districts were groups of towns called toparchies. Once assessed the local authorities then had to pay the relevant amount to the Romans, who left it up to them to collect the money as they saw fit. The poll-tax was unpopular in the provinces because it brought home to the citizens in a personal way the fact that they were under the domination of a foreign regime.

The tax was particularly hated in Judaea, although, to some extent, it could be said that the Jews had only themselves to blame for it. After the death of Herod the Great in 4 BCE two of his sons, Antipas and Philip, each governed as tetrarch over a quarter of his kingdom. The remaining half, consisting of Judaea, Samaritis and Idumaea, was ruled by another son, Archelaus, as ethnarch. These kings, ruling as clients of Rome, were responsible for collecting the taxes in their own dominions.

The Herods were Idumeans (descendants of Edom) but were brought up as Jews. Although in league with Rome they had the sensitivity (not something for which the Herods are famous) to collect their taxes in local coinage which did not bear an image and was thus acceptable to Jews (Ex 20:4); unlike the Roman denarius which bore the image of the emperor. Archelaus was not a good ruler and for various reasons, including a marriage that was considered incestuous, was disliked by his subjects. The Jews therefore sent delegations to Rome complaining about Herod Archelaus, who was eventually summoned to Rome for investigation.

In 6 CE Archelaus was deposed by the emperor and died in exile less than ten years later. The Jews, however, got more than they bargained for because the Romans annexed Archelaus’s territory, bringing the districts of Judaea, Samaritis and Idumaea under their control as the Roman province of ‘Judaea.’

Direct rule from Rome brought Judaea under the Roman tax system, with its regular censuses and payment of the head-tax in Roman coinage. In 6 CE the first census was taken to determine the tax liability of the new province. This resulted in armed resistance organised by Judas of Galilee on the basis that it was not for people who regarded God as their only master to pay tax to the Roman emperor. The beginning of the Zealot movement is usually traced to this time.

When the Jewish religious leaders had their representatives ask Jesus the loaded question: ‘Is it lawful to give tribute unto Caesar or not?’ these recent events were still in everyone’s mind and the sensitive topic of the head-tax could easily have inflamed nationalistic and religious fervor.

‘RENDER THEREFORE UNTO CAESAR THE THINGS WHICH ARE CAESAR’S; AND UNTO GOD THE THINGS THAT ARE GOD’S’

In Matthew’s gospel the scene in which Jesus uttered those now famous words about payment of the tribute is set in one of several episodes where he is in conflict with the Jewish religious leaders. These are recorded in Matthew chapters twenty-one and twenty-two. They contain six controversy stories, among which are interspersed four parables. The stories, as already mentioned, are about conflict with the religious authorities. The parables also concern the religious leaders and are aimed at them. They illustrate the failure of the religious authorities to respond to the call of God through Jesus and predict the results of that failure.

THE SIX CONTROVERSY STORIES

21:12-17 Jesus asserts his authority by cleansing the Temple

21:23-27 The question which challenges Jesus’ authority

22:15-22 The question about payment of the poll-tax to the emperor

22:23-33 The questions about the resurrection

22:34-40 The question about the most important commandment

22:41-46 The question (asked by Jesus) about David’s Lord.

THE FOUR PARABLES

21:18-22 The destruction of the unfruitful fig tree

21:28-32 The two sons

21:33-46 The vineyard and the tenants

22:1-14 The wedding banquet and the guest without the proper garment

22:15-22 THE QUESTION ABOUT PAYMENT OF THE POLL-TAX TO THE EMPEROR

After Jesus had driven the traders from the temple the religious leaders had challenged him to state by what authority he had the right to do so. He had replied by asking them if John’s baptism was from heaven, or of men. They dared not answer as they had rejected John but the people thought highly of him. Although it was obvious to all that they knew the answer to the question, they replied that they did not know. This meant that the leading authorities publicly declared themselves unfit to pronounce judgement on a simple, clearcut matter. Jesus therefore refused to tell them by whose authority he had cleansed the Temple (21:27).

Having been made to look incompetent in their discussion with Jesus the Pharisees deliberately consulted (22:15) and laid plans as to how they might trap him in his talk. It is likely that they involved other groups, such as the Herodians (22:16) and the Sadducees (22:23), whom they normally opposed, in these discussions. It is interesting that often those who have no time for one another are willing to temporarily lay aside their differences and form a coalition against Christ and his teachings.

They therefore approached Jesus, armed with premeditated questions, and began by insincerely flattering him with words similar to those which Nicodemus (Jn 3:2) had used sincerely: “Teacher, we know that you are true and teach the way of God truthfully, and you do not care about anyone’s opinion, for you are not swayed by appearances” (ESV). They addressed him as ‘teacher’ but he knew that they had not come to him as to a rabbi for guidance on a topic of religious concern. Once they asked their question ‘Is it lawful to pay taxes to Caesar, or not?’ he said: ‘Why put me to the test, you hypocrites?’

They had been hoping for a Yes or No answer. If Jesus condemned the payment of the poll-tax to Caesar then they would accuse him of sedition and have him arrested by the Roman authorities for being a Zealot. If he said it ought to be paid then they could stir up the crowd against him, saying that as a collaborator with the oppressive occupying regime and its corrupt system of taxation he was a traitor to his own people and the Jewish religion. There was no loophole. They had him in a dilemma, he could not escape.

Instead of giving a Yes or No answer Jesus asked them to show him the coin that was the only legal tender for paying Roman taxes. Taking a silver denarius he used it as a visual aid, asking: ‘Whose is this image and superscription?’ They answered: ‘Caesar’s.’ Matthew does not tell us which emperor had struck the coin. It may have borne the engraved image of the then current emperor Tiberius Caesar, or perhaps that of his predecessor and stepfather, Caesar Augustus. If a coin of Tiberius it would typically have been inscribed in abbreviated Latin as follows:

[Obverse]

TI. CAESAR DIVI AVG. F. AVGVSTVS

Tiberius Caesar, Son of the Divine Augustus, himself Augustus

[Reverse]

TR. POT. XVII. IMP. VII.

Holder of the Tribunician Power for the Seventeenth Time, Hailed as Imperator (Victorious Commander) for the Seventh Time

Jesus said to them: ‘Render therefore unto Caesar the things which are Caesar’s; and unto God the things that are God’s’. It is then said that his questioners marvelled and left him. This was because it was a wise answer which identified two sets of priorities. Jesus was effectively asking them: ‘Who is Caesar and what does he demand?’ and ‘Who is God, and what does he demand?’ His words must have struck home to both groups that had come together to ask the question. The anti-Roman Pharisees were unwilling to render to Caesar the things that were Caesar’s, the power hungry and wealth-seeking Herodians who colluded with the Romans were refusing to render to God what belonged to God.

As we complete and submit our census forms let us remember that every one of us has a two-fold obligation – to Caesar (the state), and to God. These are not mutually exclusive, faithfulness as a Christian does not hinder obedience as a good citizen. Nor are they the same. Caesar assesses what we have. God claims what we are. Caesar’s image and superscription are on our coins, God’s image and superscription is stamped on our consciences. Caesar takes from what is ours, tax is a liability and not voluntary. God expects us to give him our all, it is voluntary and not obligatory. We owe Caesar loyalty and respect, we give God our worship and our service.

If only the Jewish leaders had taken on board the wise advice that Jesus gave on the subject of the poll-tax! The Jewish wars (66-73 CE), the destruction of Jerusalem and the downfall of the Jewish nation might never have come to pass. They failed to ‘render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar’s; and unto God the things that are God’s,’ and paid a terrible price (Lk 19:42-44).

General

ARE YOU A SAINT LIKE ST. PATRICK?

Posted on 16th Mar 202118th Dec 2025 by writtenexposition

Sometime around 430 CE a sixteen year old Briton was kidnapped by Irish raiders near his home on the west coast, probably close to Dumbarton in Scotland. He was carried away to the north of Ireland and sold to a warrior chief, for whom he worked as a herdsman on the slopes of Slemish mountain near Ballymena, Northern Ireland. Although brought up in the faith Patrick had just been a nominal Christian up to that point in time. Poorly fed and badly treated by his master he began to think about God again and to pray to him regularly. Regretful that he had had little time for God before his capture he repented of his sins and turned to God with all his heart.

After six years of slavery Patrick became convinced that he heard a voice telling him that it was time to leave. He therefore made his escape and travelled to a port two hundred miles south where he boarded a ship bound for Gaul. Details are sketchy but it seems that he trained for the ministry on an island near Cannes before returning home to his family in Britain some years later. There, in a dream reminiscent of the one in which the Apostle received the Macedonian Call, Patrick received his own call to evangelize Ireland. In his dream he encountered a man called Victoricius who carried letters, one of which he read to Patrick. It began with the words: ‘The Voice of the Irish.’

Heeding the call, Patrick arrived in Ireland to find the country in a poor spiritual state. It was steeped in paganism and magic. Patrick travelled throughout the land preaching and teaching; concentrating his evangelistic efforts on the many warrior chieftains. Much of the opposition his mission encountered was from the Druids, a Celtic priestly caste. Having been a slave himself, Patrick was one of the first Christians to speak out against slavery and it is said that shortly after his lifetime the Irish slave trade came to an end. Patrick’s work as a missionary is significant for he was one of the earliest to take the gospel outside the bounds of what had been the Roman empire.

It is hard to separate fact from fiction as regards St. Patrick. Stories about him chasing the snakes from Ireland and illustrating the Trinity with a leaf of Shamrock may be myths but one thing is certain: Patrick was a saint. He has never been canonized by the Roman Catholic church, but that is not how one becomes a saint anyhow. Sainthood is not attained because of what we have done for others and because of what others think of us. We do not have to wait until we are long dead in order to achieve sainthood but we become saints while we are alive. Many of the New Testament epistles were written ‘to the saints.’ The authors were not writing to dead people but to congregations of Christian believers who were very much alive at the time. St. Patrick, like every other Christian believer, did not become a saint because of his good deeds but because he humbly acknowledged his state as a sinner in God’s sight and received Jesus Christ as his Saviour. Patrick wrote;

‘I am Patrick, a sinner, most unlearned, the least of all the faithful, and utterly despised by many…I was like a stone lying in the deep mire; and He that is mighty came and in His mercy lifted me up.’

Patrick journeyed throughout Ireland as an itinerant preacher of the gospel, not to become a saint but because he already was one. He loved the Lord Jesus Christ and wanted to share the good news of salvation with others. His prayer was: ‘Christ with me, Christ before me, Christ behind me, Christ in me…! Are you a saint like St Patrick? If not, then cease from trying to save yourself by your own efforts and instead receive as Saviour the Lord Jesus Christ who died for your sins. That is exactly what a sixteen year old boy in Ireland did almost sixteen hundred years ago, and immediately became a saint!

Exposition

1 PETER 2:18-25 – COMMENTARY

Posted on 10th Mar 202118th Dec 2025 by writtenexposition

2:18-25 SUBMISSION AT WORK

Servants, be subject to your masters with all fear; not only to the good and gentle, but also to the froward. For this is thankworthy, if a man for conscience toward God endure grief, suffering wrongfully. For what glory is it, if, when ye be buffeted — for your faults, ye shall take it patiently? but if, when ye do well, and suffer for it, ye take it patiently, this is acceptable with God. For even hereunto were ye called: because Christ also suffered for us, leaving us an example, that ye should follow his steps: Who did no sin, neither was guile found in his mouth: Who, when he was reviled, reviled not again; when he suffered, he threatened not; but committed himself to him that judgeth righteously: Who his own self bare our sins in his own body on the tree, that we, being dead to sins, should live unto righteousness: by whose stripes ye were healed. For ye were as sheep going astray; but are now returned unto the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls.

Slavery was an integral part of ancient society and many of those to whom Peter was writing would have been slaves. This meant that they were the property of their masters, who had absolute power over their lives. Christians believed that they were all one in Christ and that the everyday social distinctions around them did not apply (Gal 3:28; 1 Cor 12:13; Col 3:11; Philemon 8-18) in the church but real life was very different. Four New Testament books contain advice for Christian slaves (1 Cor 7:21; Eph 6:5-8; Col 3:22-25; Titus 2:9) and additionally 1 Tim 6:1-2 tells Timothy what to teach slaves. Before Christianity there had been much written advice to masters on how to manage, control and get the most out of slaves but no-one had ever written directly to slaves about how to be good slaves.

2:18 Peter here addresses household slaves (oikétēs) and instructs them to be submissive to their masters ‘with all fear.’ The fear is not towards the masters (3:14) but towards God (1:17; 2:17; 3:2; Eph 6:6). The submission is not to be dependent upon how they are treated but is to be shown not only to masters who are kind and fair but also to those who are awkward and hard to work with (skoliós – bent or warped).

2:19 -20 This submission is said to be a ‘grace’ (cháris), an act that God approves of. As his master’s property a slave could be ill-treated for no reason at all and had no legal recourse. The Christian slave is therefore encouraged to be patient even if beaten unjustly. Christian slaves are able to endure (put up with) such a beating because of their consciousness of God (a conscience informed by God) and their relationship to him, which will involve suffering. There is no glory (prestige, boasting, credit) in taking patiently a beating which they deserve because they have done wrong but to take patiently suffering when they ‘act rightly’ is a ‘grace’ (cháris is used again) with God. The word for beat (KJV buffet) means to ‘strike with the fist’ and is the same word used of the blows given to the Lord Jesus at his trial (Mt 26:67; Mk 14:65).

2:21 This submissive acceptance of ill-treatment is a grace (a fine thing) because that is what they have been called to and it is how Christ behaved. His suffering is the supreme example for believers, they are to follow after his tracks (a line of footprints). The word example (hupogrammós) occurs only here in the New Testament and refers to writing that a student would trace when learning the alphabet. The suffering includes Christ’s death (Mk 8:31; Lk 22:15; Acts 17:3; Heb 13: 12) which is said to be ‘on your behalf’. Strictly speaking this is irrelevant to the behaviour of the slaves. There is no suggestion that the slaves were to replicate very aspect of Christ’s suffering but Peter reminds them that they can expect to suffer unwarranted physical and verbal abuse and advises them to accept it without complaining.

2:22-25 Peter illustrates Christ’s example of submission by using a series of phrases (possibly from an early Christian hymn) based on the messianic passage Isaiah 52:13 – 53:12. These phrases refer back to ‘Christ’ in v.21. He is the ultimate example of innocent suffering. Notice the relative pronoun ‘who.’

‘who did not do sin nor was guile found in his mouth’ 2:22; Isa 53:9

Peter emphasizes Christ’s innocence: ‘who did no sin.’ This is also stressed elsewhere in New Testament:

‘in him is no sin’ 1 Jn 3:5
‘who knew no sin’ 2 Cor 5:21
‘tempted yet without sin’ Heb 4:15; 7:26
‘which of you convinceth me of sin?’ Jn 8:46
‘no unrighteousness is in him’ Jn 7:18
‘the prince of this world… hath nothing in me’ Jn 14:30

‘who when he was abused did not return abuse, when he suffered he did not threaten but handed himself over to the one who judges justly ‘ 2:23; (see 3:9a) Isa 53:7, also 53:6,12

Insults: Mk 14:65; 15:17-20, 29-32

Silence: Mk 14:61; 15:5; Lk 23:9

‘committed/entrusted’ Lk 23:46

‘himself’ There is no object of the verb, ‘himself’ is implied i.e. he committed his cause to the righteous judge, he knew he was innocent but left his vindication to God. He did not retaliate against his enemies.

Likewise Christians are not to retaliate but leave matters in God’s hands (Rom 12:17-20; 1 Thess 5:15; 1 Pet 3:9)

‘who himself bore our sins in his body on the tree…by whose bruise you have been healed’ 2:24; Isa 53:4, 12

2:24 ‘tree’ (xúlon) lit ‘wood’ The word cross (staurós) does not occur in 1 Peter. Peter also uses xúlon in Acts 5:30; 10:39; 13:29 and Paul uses it in Gal 3:13, quoting Dt 21:23 where it means ‘gallows.’

‘bore’ (anaphérō) Some would translate this ‘carried up our sins in his body to the tree’ as anaphérō is used in LXX (e.g. Lev 14:20) and in 1 Pet 2:5 of bringing a sacrifice to the altar. Against this is the fact that the New Testament does not generally view the cross as an altar (Heb 13:10?) and that the idea of having got to the cross is already in the phrase ‘on the tree.’

As in Isa 53 the bearing of sins involves putting them away by accepting the punishment for them.

‘in his body’ Christ endured the penalty our sins deserved as a man, i.e. as our representative.

The purpose of Christ’s death was that we might be dead to sins (apogínomai, have no part in, cease from) and live unto righteousness (high standard of moral behaviour 3:14).

2:24b-25a ‘by whose stripes ye were healed. For ye were as sheep going astray’ Peter again refers to Isaiah 53 but for the first person (we) in Isaiah he substitutes the second person (you) in order to apply it to the slaves he is addressing. They would have been familiar with bruises (discoloured swellings due to a blow from a fist or a whip) so Peter tells them that Christ had borne such brutal treatment without retaliating and as a result of his injuries sinful men have been restored to health.

2:25 As pagans they had wandered astray like sheep but now as Christians they have turned to the Shepherd and Guardian (epískopos, superintendent, overseer) of their souls. He is one whom they can trust to rule and protect them.

Shepherding and overseeing are linked together by the apostle Paul in his address to the Ephesian elders in Acts 20:28: ‘Take heed therefore unto yourselves, and to all the flock, over the which the Holy Ghost hath made you overseers, to feed the church of God, which he hath purchased with his own blood.’

1Pet 2:21 The Suffering Shepherd

1 Pet 2:22 The Sinless Shepherd

1 Pet 2:23 The Submissive Shepherd

1 Pet 2:24 The Substitutionary Shepherd

1 Pet 2:25 The Seeking Shepherd (straying sheep returned- sheep have to be brought back)

1 PETER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 PETER – INTRODUCTION

1 PETER – OUTLINE

1 PETER 1:1-2 – COMMENTS

1 PETER – 1:3-12 – COMMENTS

1 PETER 1:13 – 2:3 – COMMENTS

1 PETER 2:4-10 – COMMENTS

1 PETER 2:11-17 – COMMENTS

1 PETER 3:1-12 – COMMEN TS

1 PETER 3:13-17 – COMMENTS

1 PETER 3:18-22 THE SPIRITS IN PRISON

1 PETER 4:1-6 THE GOSPEL PREACHED TO THE DEAD

1 PETER 4:7-19 LIVING WITH ‘THE END’ IN VIEW

1 PETER 5:1-4 – EXHORTATION TO ELDERS

1 PETER 5:5-14 – CLOSING WORDS

Exposition

1 PETER 2:11-17 – COMMENTARY

Posted on 3rd Mar 202118th Dec 2025 by writtenexposition

2:11-12 RELATIONS WITH NON-CHRISTIANS

Dearly beloved, I beseech you as strangers and pilgrims, abstain from fleshly lusts, which war against the soul; Having your conversation honest among the Gentiles: that, whereas they speak against you as evildoers, they may by your good works, which they shall behold, glorify God in the day of visitation.

2:11 This verse begins the second main section of the letter which is mostly exhortation (paraenesis) and advice to the believers of Asia Minor who were experiencing a time of trial. Peter, using the first person singular ‘I’ for the first time in the letter, addresses them as ‘beloved’ (dear friends) and ‘beseeches’ them. ‘beseech’ (parakaléō) Rom 12:1; 1Cor 1:10; 1 Thess 4:1.

He again (1:1) reminds them that they are outsiders and foreigners. The two words do not have quite the same meaning.

pároikos an alien. This is someone who has settled in a foreign country but retains the characteristics of his homeland.

parepídēmos temporary resident. This someone who makes a brief stay in a foreign country but has no intention of taking up permanent residence.

The apostle Paul wrote: ‘But our citizenship is in heaven, and from it we await a Saviour, the Lord Jesus Christ’ Phil 3:20 ESV

The author of Hebrews wrote: ‘For here have we no continuing city, but we seek one to come.’

In view of the fact that they are different from those around them, that they do not belong here, Peter exhorts them to ‘abstain from fleshly lusts, which war against the soul.’

‘abstain’ see 1 Thess 5;22

‘lusts’ These are the passions (desires in a bad sense, cravings) of the flesh which assault the inner person in order to conquer it and divert it from living to please God. Peter uses the metaphor of war for this inward struggle. strateúomai wage war.

‘fleshly’ – having to do with man’s physical nature as a human being (1:24; 3:18; 4:1,6). The word is morally neutral.

The reason for avoiding these fleshly desires (‘which’ = ‘because they’) is that they war against the soul (psuchḗ, the spiritual part of human beings).

2:12 Peter has in mind immoral behaviour that would ruin their Christian testimony among their pagan neighbours. Having exhorted negatively in v.11 he now puts it positively: ‘see that your lifestyle (cf. Jam 3:13) among the pagans is good.’ Throughout the New Testament Christians are advised to be well thought of by their neighbours (Mt 5:16; Col 4:5; 1 Cor 10:32; 1 Thess 4:12; 1 Tim 3:7; 5:14; 6;1; Tit 2:5-10; 1 Pet 2:15; 3:1, 16).

‘So that ‘whereas’ (in cases where) they speak against you as evildoers’ would suggest that at least some of these believers were under suspicion and that their situation could become perilous.

‘behold’ is a present participle These non-Christians were observing the believers in a continuous or ongoing basis.

‘the day of visitation (episkope)’ This is probably a reference to the Day of Judgement (LXX Isa 10:3). The result of the inquest into how a person has behaved may be punishment (Jer 6:15; 10:15; 11:23). Even if they remained unconverted those vilifying the believers would glorify God on that day.

‘good works’ `Peter refers to ‘doing good’ several times in this letter (2:14-15, 20; 3:6, 17; 4:19) and to ‘conduct’ (1:15, 18; 2;12; 3:1;16).

Although not the main thought here, Peter may have hoped that the good conduct of the believers might lead unbelievers to faith in Christ, he certainly hoped that in the case of wives with pagan husbands in 3:1.

2:13-17 SUBMISSION TO GOVERNMENT

‘Submit yourselves to every ordinance of man for the Lord’s sake: whether it be to the king, as supreme; Or unto governors, as unto them that are sent by him for the punishment of evildoers, and for the praise of them that do well. For so is the will of God, that with well doing ye may put to silence the ignorance of foolish men: As free, and not using your liberty for a cloak of maliciousness, but as the servants of God. Honor all men. Love the brotherhood. Fear God. Honor the king.’

From 2:13 – 3:12 Peter, giving practical examples of the ‘good works ‘ of v.12, outlines short codes of behaviour for different classes or groups of people. This was not unusual at that time as the Stoics (e.g. Hierocles, On Duties) set down short codes as to how one ought to behave and manage one’s life. Similar codes are found in the writings of the apostle Paul (Eph 5:21- 6:9; Col 3:18 – 4:1; 1 Tim 2:8-15; Titus 2:1-10).

2:13 The advice starts with a general statement ‘submit yourselves to every human creature.’

‘on account of the Lord’ The same idea is repeated at the beginning of v.15.

hupotássō This means ‘to be subordinate’ or ‘set oneself under’. Christians are to ‘line up under authority;’ willingly choosing to obey others. This verb is used again to slaves (2:18), to wives (3:1), and to young people (5:5).

ktísis this word means ‘creation’ or ‘creature,’ not ‘institution’ as it is sometimes translated by those who view the ‘thing created as having been created by man. The ‘all men’ in v.17 would confirm that it is God’s creatures that are in view rather than a human institution like the Roman empire. The point is that the Christian way of life is not based on self-assertion but on voluntary subordination to others. Having made this general point Peter now moves to the particular:

‘to the emperor as sovereign’

The first example Peter gives is the emperor (secular human authority). Basileús was a title of the emperor (‘king’ Jn 19:15; Acts 17:7; Rev 17:10, 12), or, in the east of the empire, the client kings Rome permitted to reign e.g. in Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Pergamum.

The emperor is said to be ‘supreme’ i.e. superior, highest. Although the emperor was the highest ranking human being at the time the Christians were to obey him, not because his power demanded it, but because it pleased God (‘for the Lord’s sake’).

2:14 ‘or to governors under his commission’

hēgemṓn This term would cover imperial officials like governors, consuls, legates, prefects, and ambassadors as well as pro-consuls and procurators who administered less important provinces like Thrace and Judaea.

The role of the government is to mete out justice to criminals and to look approvingly on good citizens. For a Christian’s relations with the government see also Rom 13:1-7; 1 Tim 2:1-4; Tit 3:1-2.

2:15 Peter amplifies what he has said.

‘so’hoútōs thus or in this way. This could refer either back or forward. It probably refers backward as the same word (‘after this manner’) in 3:5 refers back. It is God’s will that Christians obey the government and are among those who do good.

‘well-doing’ agathopoiéō to do what is honourable or upright. Their good works would silence (muzzle 1 Tim 5:18) their detractors. This word phimóō is used metaphorically (Mt 22:34; Mk 1:25; 4:39; 1 Cor 9:9).

‘ignorance’ That the Christians are slandered and misrepresented is because of ignorance on the part of foolish (unbelieving and arrogant) men.

2:16 This verse is a paradox: ‘as free…as God’s slaves.’

‘as free’ eleútheros This nominative adjective sits on its own here with no verb. The NIV translates it as ‘Live as people who are free.’ Although some of them are slaves (v.18f) to an earthly master, all those who whom Peter is writing have been freed by Jesus Christ (Jn 8:31-36; Rom). Although free they must not abuse this liberty so that it becomes licence and ‘a covering for wickedness.’

Those who are literally slaves are God’s slaves first and foremost and those who are literally free are also God’s slaves. They are all God’s slaves because it is he who has redeemed them (1:18).

Freedom in Christ – Mt 17:26; Lk 4:18-21; Jn 8:32; Rom 8:2; 1 Cor 7:22; 2 Cor 3:17; Gal 5:1.

2:17 This is a summary verse. The Christian’s social responsibilities are summed up in four injunctions. The first of these imperatives is in the aorist tense, the other three in the present tense. This change of tense may perhaps indicate that the last three are elaborating the first.

‘Honour all’ – obligation to society – social. Christians are to show respect to everyone, i.e people in general. This includes not only other Christians but also pagans and Jews.

Christians are to honour:

God 1 Tim1:17
One another Rom 12:10
Those in authority Rom 13:7
Those least esteemed 1 Cor 12:23-24
Parents Eph 6:2
Wife 1 Pet 3:7
Elders 1 Tim 5:17
Employer 1 Tim 6:1
Needy widows 1 Tim 5:3

‘Love the brotherhood’ – obligation to fellow-Christians – ecclesiastical. The word ‘brotherhood’ (adelphótēs) occurs only here and at 5:9.

Brotherly love is evidence of salvation: Jn 13:35; 1 Thess 4:9; 1 Jn 4:21; 3:14.
Brotherly love is seen in action: Rom 12:10; 1 Jn 3:17; Philemon 7.
Brotherly love must continue Heb 13:1.

‘Fear God’ – Obligation to God – spiritual. God is to be reverenced and deeply respected as the ultimate authority, in a religious sense.

‘Honour the emperor’ – obligation to the state – political. The emperor was to be loyally respected, in a non-religious sense (Rom 13:7). See Rom 13:1; 1 Tim 2:1-2.

A Christian who respects everyone, loves other Christians, fears God and submits himself to civil authorities will be a good witness for Jesus Christ.