INTRODUCTION
Up to the end of chapter 24 Ezekiel’s ministry has been dominated by messages of impending doom and symbolic acts warning of the forthcoming destruction of Jerusalem/Judah. The warning phase has now passed and the siege of the city by Nebuchadnezzar’s forces has begun.
The fulfilment of Ezekiel’s prophecies will confirm him as a genuine prophet of YHWH; that confirmation comes two years later in chapter 33 when news of Jerusalem’s fall reaches Ezekiel and his fellow exiles in Babylonia. From chapter 33 onwards Ezekiel’s tone changes and he delivers promises of renewal, restoration and return.
Sandwiched between the prophecies of judgement (1-24) and the prophecies of hope (33-48) lies a distinct section composed of oracles against nations that surround Judah. These have, at one time or another, mocked, harmed or exploited the people of God.
The main point of these oracles is to salvage or build YHWH’s reputation among the exiles from Judah – who no longer have a land, a city or a temple – by assuring them that far from being just a local deity who can’t protect his own people YHWH is the supreme God who controls global events. He is sovereign over all nations, whether small or large, and is hence the one who directs Nebuchadnezzar and the events surrounding the destruction of Jerusalem.
Although the oracles are, for the most part, addressed to the offending nations it is unlikely that they were ever aware of them or realised that events in their history were being orchestrated by YHWH, the God of Israel/Judah.
Ezekiel delivered the oracles against foreign nations on different dates (cf. 26:1; 27:1, 29:17; 30:20; 31:1; 32:17) but they are grouped together in this section, except for a further diatribe against Edom (35:1-15) and one against Gog of the land of Magog (38:1-39:29). Ezekiel is not the only prophet who prophesied against the nations – see Amos (chps. 1-2), Isaiah (chps.13-23) and Jeremiah (chps. 46-51).
The number seven is significant – signifying completeness – in Ezekiel’s oracles against the nations (cf. Deut 7:1). Seven are condemned in the eight chapters 25-32: (Ammon, Moab, Edom, Philistia, Tyre, Sidon, Egypt) and against Egypt there are seven separate prophecies (29:1-16; 17-21; 30:1-19; 20-26; 31:1-18; 32:1-16; 17-32). Dates are given for those against Egypt, except that in 30:1-19.
The formula ‘The word of the Lord came unto me, saying’ occurs 13 times in the oracles against the nations – 7 of these relate to Egypt, 1 to Sidon, 4 to Tyre and the one in 25:1 covers all four small nations addressed in chapter 25.
The oracles against the nations share a similar structure:
- introductory formula
- the nation identified
- the reason for condemnation given – ‘because. . .’
- the punishment stated – ‘I will. . .
- concluding formula – ‘. . . shall know that I am the Lord’
STRUCTURE OF CHAPTER 25
1-7 AGAINST AMMON
8-11 AGAINST MOAB
12-14 AGAINST EDOM
15-17 AGAINST PHILISTIA
EXPOSITION
AGAINST AMMON 1-7
Verse 1 begins with the standard prophetic word formula: ‘The word of the Lord came unto me again, saying.’ This covers the entire chapter and emphasises that the messages do not originate with Ezekiel but come from YHWH. Having pronounced judgement upon Jerusalem/Judah in chapters 1-24 Ezekiel now turns his attention to foreign nations. The first of these is Ammon, a nation to the east of Judah. The oracle is undated.
In v.2 Ezekiel is addressed as ‘Son of Adam,’ emphasising his humanity in contrast to YHWH’s majesty. Then there is a call to Ammon to hear the word of the Lord God before the oracle begins in v.3 with ‘Thus saith the Lord God.’ This divine designation, sometimes translated as ‘Sovereign Lord,’ emphasises that YHWH has judicial supremacy over all nations, not just Israel/Judah.
The reason given for Ammon’s condemnation is that the nation celebrated (said ‘Aha’) when the Temple was destroyed, when the land of Israel was desolated and the people of Judah taken into Babylonian captivity. This looks ahead to the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 586 BCE.
Verses 4-5 announce YHWH’s punishment upon the Ammonites. The ‘sons of the East’ (the Bedouins from Arabia) will move into the Ammonite territory desolated by the Babylonians (this occurred five years after the fall of Jerusalem) and graze their camels on what was once Rabbah – the Ammonite capital. Verse 6 repeats the key point that Ammon rejoiced at Judah’s misfortune and v.7 emphasises that Ammon will disappear as a political entity. The punishment will testify to YHWH’s control of the nations – ‘thou shalt know that I am the Lord.’
The Bible does not give much information about the Ammonites; most of what is known about them comes from 7th century BCE Assyrian sources. It is from the Old Testament, however, that we learn that the progenitor of the Ammonites was Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot as the result of an incestuous union with his younger daughter (Gen 19:38).
In the time of the Judges the Ammonites were engaged in military conflict with the Israelites under Jephthah c.1100 BCE (Judg 11:4-40). Some years later (c.1020 BCE) the Ammonites under their chieftain Nahash were defeated in battle at Jabesh-Gilead by the Israelites led by Saul (1 Sam 11:1-15).
In the time of David the Ammonites led a coalition against Israel but this was defeated by Israelite forces under Joab and Abishai. Their capital city – Rabbath-Ammon (modern day Amman, capital of Jordan) – was breached and the Ammonites became subject to David (2 Sam 10-11; 1 Chron 20).
During the reign of Jehoshaphat of Judah (c. 870-849 BCE) an attack by a confederacy of Moabites and Ammonites was repulsed (2 Chron. 20:1-30). Jotham of Judah (c. 740-732 BCE) went to war against the Ammonites; he defeated them and imposed an annual tribute (2 Chron 27:5).
The Ammonites were at their most prosperous during the 7th century BCE under Assyrian rule. It is estimated that they became vassals of Assyria c. 734 BCE and, remarkably, remained loyal until c. 620 BCE. Although paying tribute to Assyria their own rulers were allowed to manage without the presence of an Assyrian governor and to control the profitable caravan trade from Arabia.
It is ironic that the Ammonites rejoiced when Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians because they were next on Nebuchadnezzar’s To-Do list; this was represented in Ezekiel 21:19-22 by the picture of Nebuchadnezzar halting at a crossroads to decide which of the two cites – Rabbah or Jerusalem – to attack first. It was the desolation of Ammonite territory by the Babylonians that enabled the fulfilment of the prophecy given in Ezek 25:4-5 that the derelict site that was once Rabbah would be occupied by the Arabians.
AGAINST MOAB 8-11
The Moabites were another people with close kinship ties with the Israelites. According to Gen 19:37 their progenitor was Moab, the son of Lot by an incestuous union with his elder daughter. Moab was a relatively small fertile territory lying east of the Dead Sea to the south of Ammon and thus southeast of Judah.
Generally the Moabites and the Israelites coexisted peacefully but throughout their shared history there were occasional periods of hostility and armed conflict. Eventually the Moabites were subdued by David, who treated them brutally after defeat (2 Sam 8:2) and they remained dominated by Israel under David and Solomon.
Later, while Israel was oppressed by the Syrian King Hazael (c. 843-796 BCE) of Aram-Damascus, bands of Moabite raiders availed themselves of the opportunity to launch attacks on Israelite territory (2 Kings 13:20).
Like the Ammonites, the Moabites were vassals of Assyria during the 7th century BCE and then became subordinate to the Neo-Babylonians when they came into ascendancy. It was as vassals of the Babylonians that they, along with other groups, attacked Judah when King Jehoiakim (c.609-598 BCE) rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar.
The prophet Jeremiah names Moab as one of the states having discussions with King Zedekiah of Judah (597 to 586 BCE) about rebelling against Nebuchadnezzar (Jer 27:3).
In v.8 Moab (linked with Seir, i.e. Edom) is condemned for saying that Judah is just like all the other nations. In other words, YHWH did not view Judah as anything special because he allowed Jerusalem to be destroyed by the Babylonians. As punishment for saying this (vv. 9-11) Moab’s territory will become vulnerable to attack and will be ‘given as a possession’ by YHWH to the ‘sons of the East’ (the Arabians), just like the Ammonites – who will ‘not be remembered among the nations’ i.e. totally wiped out.
Three of Moab’s most important frontier towns that are identified as vulnerable were later destroyed. Beth-jeshimoth (Num 33:49; Josh 12:3; 13:20), Baal-meon (Jer 48:23) and Kiriathaim (Num 32:37; Josh 13:19; Jer 48:1, 23) were once Israelite towns, in the territory allocated to the tribe of Reuben, but by Ezekiel’s time this area was occupied by the Moabites.
Again, Moab’s punishment is so that ‘they shall know that I am the Lord.’
AGAINST EDOM 12-14
A third nation with kinship ties to Israel was Edom. The Edomites were descended from Esau but despite their common heritage both nations detested one another. Edom occupied an arid region to the south of Judah and south of the Dead Sea.
The short oracle in vv. 8-14 condemns Edom for ‘taking vengeance’ upon the house of Judah. This is a reference to Edom allying with the Babylonians and participating in the siege and destruction of Jerusalem (Psa 137:7; Obad 1-14; Lam 4:21-22). For this the Sovereign Lord will make Edom desolate; the districts of Teman and Dedan are specifically mentioned – standing for ‘all Edom’ (cf. Jer 49:7-8). The population will fall by the sword.
In v.14 YHWH promises to ‘lay vengeance’ upon Edom (which in v.12 had itself taken vengeance on Judah). In this verse YHWH refers to ‘my people,’ ‘my anger,’ ‘my fury’ and ‘my vengeance.’ Interestingly, the punishment of Edom will not be carried out by the Babylonians but by ‘my people Israel.’ This may predict attacks on Edomites during the Maccabean-Idumean Conflict; especially during 163 BCE, 2 Macc 10:15-16. The oracle against Edom ends not with ‘they shall know that I am the Lord’ but with ‘they shall know my vengeance, saith the Lord God.’
There are longer oracles against Edom in Ezekiel 35, Isa 34, Jer 49:7-22 and Obadiah. See my earlier posts:
Understanding the Book of Obadiah: A Concise Overview
Pride and Fall: Obadiah 1-14
The Day of the Lord: Justice and Restoration in Obadiah 15-21
AGAINST PHILISTIA 15-17
The last nation in the group of four condemned in Ezekiel chapter 25 is Philistia. The oracle begins ‘Thus saith the Lord’ emphasising that what follows is a direct message from YHWH and thus authoritative. The reason for the condemnation is stated as ‘Because the Philistines have dealt by revenge, and have taken vengeance with a despiteful heart, to destroy it for the old hatred.’ The exact vengeful action taken by the Philistines is not specified but what is significant in v.15 is that the Lord judges motives as well as actions. The verse goes on to speak of their malice of soul (‘despiteful heart’) and ‘the old hatred’ behind their effort to destroy God’s people.
Because of that persistent hatred (‘Therefore,’ v.16) the Sovereign Lord says that he will stretch out his hand in judgement against the land of the Philistines, wipe out the Cherethites and utterly destroy the people who live by the sea. He will execute terrible vengeance upon them to punish them for their actions and when he has done so then they will know that he is YHWH. Again YHWH’s control over global affairs is asserted.
It is believed that the ancestors of the Philistines may have been the Peleset: a group of sea people from the Aegean who tried to invade Egypt during the reign of Rameses II in the 13th century BCE but were repulsed. They later took control of the coastal area of Palestine to the south and west of Judah but did not expel the original Canaanite inhabitants. Although originally sea people their main occupation was farming – they became traders in grain and were famous for their monochrome pottery.
The term Cherethites (cf. Zeph 2:5) in Ezekiel 25:16 seems to refer to the Philistines’ origins as sea people from southern Europe (Jer 47:4; Amos 9:7 Crete – ‘Caphtor’). The Greek Old Testament – LXX -(translates ‘Cherethites’ as ‘Cretans’). Some scholars suggest that the Cherethites were a group of Philistine elite warriors.
Although the area settled by the Philistines became known as Philistia it was not a united political state as such but more a confederacy of five main cities: Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron and Gath (Josh 13:3). The most southerly was Gaza, north of that was the port city Ashkelon, and to the northwest of Ashkelon was Ashdod. Farthest north was Ekron, the only one of the five actually founded by the Philistines. The site of Gath is unknown.
Such was the Philistines’ prowess as warriors that none of these cities was built on a height for defence – the Philistines didn’t see that as necessary. Each city had a chief or king – it seems that these men met at times to discuss matters of concern relevant to all five cities (1 Sam 5:8; 6:15-16). The Bible gives the name of only one of those kings – Achish of Gath (1 Sam 21:10-15).
The Israelites also emerged in Canaan shortly before 1200 BCE and they and the Philistines became mortal enemies. The Philistines dominated the Israelites throughout the time of the Judges (Judge 15:11). The area around Gaza (see Judg 16) is the setting of most of the heroic exploits of Samson against the Philistines recorded in Judges 13-16. Samson’s death, nonetheless, may have occurred at Ashdod since that was the location of the main temple of the Philistine god Dragon (1 Sam 5:1-5).
1 Samuel chapters 13 and 14 record a failed rebellion against the Philistines led by Saul and his son Jonathan. A later battle proved disastrous for the Israelites since several of Saul’s sons, including Jonathan, were slain and Saul, sorely wounded and unwilling to fall into Philistine hands, committed suicide (1 Sam 31:1-6). His body was desecrated by the Philistines (1 Sam 31:9-11).
Eventually David managed to weaken the Philistines and drive them back (2 Sam 5:19-25) but did not occupy their territory. That is the last recorded conflict between Israel and the Philistines although one of the Pharaohs, whose daughter married King Solomon, captured the Philistine city of Gezer and transferred it to Solomon as a wedding gift (1 Kgs 9:16).
Like the other nations in the region the Philistines became vassals of Assyria during the 8th century BCE. They rebelled during the reign of Sargon II (721-705 BCE) as a result of which he attacked and captured Ashdod, deporting many of its citizens and resettling them far away. There is a passing reference to Sargon’s action against Ashdod in Isa 20:1. Sargon also destroyed Gath, wiping it from the map.
Philistia was greatly weakened by the Assyrians but finally destroyed as a political entity by the Neo-Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar II (c. 604-562 BCE).
SUMMATION
Ezekiel chapter 25 marks a shift from prediction of judgement on Judah to that of judgement upon Judah’s closest neighbours. Ammon, Moab, Edom and Philistia are addressed in turn and condemned for their attitude towards Judah. Their contempt, mockery, hostile actions and gloating over Judah’s misfortunes equate to hostility towards YHWH, Judah’s God. The oracles assert that all are morally accountable to YHWH because his sovereignty and authority extend far beyond the borders of one nation. World history is the working out of his purposes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
Charles River Editors. (2016). The Enemies of the Ancient Israelites: The History of the Canaanites, Philistines, Babylonians, and Assyrians, Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.
Gottwald, N. K. (2001). The Politics of Ancient Israel. Westminster John Knox Press.
Killebrew, A. E. (2005). Biblical peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, And Early Israel 1300-1100 B.C.E., Society of Biblical Lit.
Macalister, R. A. S. (2004). The Philistines: Their History and Civilization. Wipf and Stock Publishers
JOURNAL ARTICLES
Herr, L. G. (1997). Archaeological Sources for the History of Palestine: The Iron Age II Period: Emerging Nations. The Biblical Archaeologist, 60(3), 114–183.
Kletter, R. (1991). The Rujm El-Malfuf Buildings and the Assyrian Vassal State of Ammon. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 284, 33–50.
Landes, G. M. (1961). The Material Civilization of the Ammonites. The Biblical Archaeologist, 24(3), 66–86.
Written Exposition 