Tag: Ezekiel

Posted in Exposition

THE END IS NEAR – EZEKIEL CHAPTER 7

Posted on by writtenexposition

Reading: Ezekiel 7:1-27

INTRODUCTION

Ezekiel 7:1 introduces a powerful and foreboding message from YHWH to the prophet Ezekiel, continuing the ominous prophecies about the judgement upon Judah and Jerusalem. Unlike the previous chapters (4-6) which held out some hope that a remnant would survive, this chapter does not mention that but rather makes it clear that disaster is imminent and unavoidable. The repeated emphasis on words like ‘day’ and ‘end’ underscores the urgency and finality of the impending judgement: for example: ‘the end is come’ (7:2, 6); ‘the day is come’ (7:10, 12); ‘the day draweth near’ (7:12); ‘the day of the wrath of the Lord’ (7:19).

DIVIDING THE PROPHECY

The prophecy in Ezekiel 7 naturally falls into two sections (vv. 2-4 and vv. 5-27), each beginning with ‘Thus saith the Lord God.’ However, for easier consideration it can be broken down into smaller segments:

7:2-4 Judgement announced

7:5-9 Unprecedented Disaster

7:10-13 Social Upheaval

7:14-16 Military Collapse

7:17-22 Signs of Despair

7:23-25 Make the Chain

7:26-27 Ineffective Leadership

JUDGEMENT ANNOUNCED (7:2-4)

In verses 2-4 the prophecy declares that disaster will strike not just Jerusalem and Judah but ‘the four corners of the land’ i.e. the whole land of Israel will be affected by the Babylonian invasion. The occurrence of ‘end’ five times in the first six verses emphasises the finality and certainty of the judgement

The end is presented as having already arrived (‘now’ – repeated v. 8), creating a sense of urgency and inevitability. The Preacher’s Commentary explains that:

The Hebrew word ba¯), translated here “has come” can also mean “is coming” and thus there is created a certain degree of uncertainty as to the exact timing of the events about which Ezekiel warns. Some of the usages of ba¯) by themselves would be grammatically almost certain to mean “has come” while others would by themselves mean “is coming.” That they are mixed purposely here suggests to the listener that there is an urgency to the timing. A process has started which will conclude quickly: it is not completed yet, but will not be delayed for long, either.

God’s anger is portrayed as a force that can be sent. ‘I will send mine anger’ shows that in actual fact it had not yet come. The people will be judged according to their sinful ways, particularly their idol worship, which Ezekiel refers to as ‘abominations’ (offensive things). This aligns with the New Testament depiction of the judgement of believers and unbelievers according to behaviour ( 2 Cor 5:10; Rev 20:12-13).

The severity of their sins means that YHWH will show no mercy or spare them from the judgement; they will face the consequences of their actions. The section concludes with the recognition formula ‘they shall know that I am the Lord.’ It is repeated in verses 9 and 27.

UNPRECEDENTED DISASTER (7:5-9)

Beginning with the authoritative ‘Thus saith the Lord God,’ this section describes an unparalleled disaster. The ‘only’ evil that will come upon them will be unprecedented and decisive. The word ‘watcheth’ in verse 6 is a verb meaning to wake up. Verse 6 ends and verse 7 starts with the same verb ‘come,’ which is repeated seven times in vv. 5-12. These terms highlight the immediacy of the calamity.

What Ezekiel meant by the word ‘morning’ (KJV) in verse 7 is not entirely clear. It translates a word meaning ‘ring’ or ‘turn’ and the main thought is of something round. It contains the ideas of cycle, turn of events, crown and has been translated as doom, morning and diadem (Isa 28:5). It occurs again in verse 10. ‘Morning’ probably fits well with the idea of wake up in the previous verse and thus signifies the dawn of a new day, a dreadful era the like of which the Israelites have never experienced before. That day is near and is a day of tumult (KJV ‘trouble’) in which they will hear the noise of war. That clamour is contrasted with the ‘sounding again of the mountains.’ This is not referring to an earthquake but most likely to the joyful conversation of workers at harvest time (Isa 16:10) in vineyards on mountain slopes; the opposite of the tumult of invasion. In this verse the imminence of judgement is conveyed by the following phrases: ‘the morning is come,’ ‘the time is come,’ and ‘the day…is near.’ Here ‘the day’ is introduced – a concept that will be developed from verse 10 onwards.

If translated ‘crown’ or ‘diadem’ rather than ‘morning’ it could be a reference to the Chaldean King Nebuchadnezzar.

Verses 8 and 9 again state that the punishment is the Israelites’ own fault and that no mercy or compassion will be shown by YHWH. These two verses are a repetition of verses 3 and 4 but with ‘that smiteth’ added after ‘ye shall know that I am the Lord.’ This emphasizes that the judgement is from YHWH. The additional wording forms a compound name of the Lord: YHWH-Makkeh, The Lord who smites. For other compound names see my post COMPOUND NAMES OF YHWH

SOCIAL UPHEAVAL (7:10-13)

Verses 10-13 depict a society in turmoil. The day of judgement has arrived, signified by the dawn of morning. Some commentators take ‘the rod hath blossomed’ etc. to refer to Judah; the idea being that pride has flourished among the people, contributing to their downfall, i.e. they have been over-confident. Violence has become a rod of wickedness, symbolizing the prevalence and severity of sin among the people.

I take it, however, that the rod refers to the Neo-Babylonian Empire and its swift rise to ascendancy in the Ancient Near East under the Chaldean kings Nabopolassar (626-605 BCE) and his son Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BCE). In the Bible a budding rod represents growth and prosperity (for the story about Aaron’s rod that budded, blossomed and bore almonds please read Numbers chapter 17). Three clauses describe the Chaldeans: 1) ‘the rod hath blossomed’ 2) ‘pride hath budded’ 3) ‘violence is risen up into a rod of wickedness.’ The prophet Habakkuk described this proud and violent nation as follows:

For, lo, I raise up the Chaldeans, that bitter and hasty nation, which shall march through the breadth of the land, to possess the dwelling places that are not theirs.
They are terrible and dreadful: their judgment and their dignity shall proceed of themselves.
Their horses also are swifter than the leopards, and are more fierce than the evening wolves: and their horsemen shall spread themselves, and their horsemen shall come from far; they shall fly as the eagle that hasteth to eat.
They shall come all for violence: their faces shall sup up as the east wind, and they shall gather the captivity as the sand.
And they shall scoff at the kings, and the princes shall be a scorn unto them: they shall deride every stronghold; for they shall heap dust, and take it. Habakkuk 1:6-10

Like a rod that blossoms, buds and grows that nation will rise up as an instrument of God’s punishment upon Judah. What will be the result for the inhabitants of the land of Israel? – ‘None of the people will be left, none of that crowd—none of their wealth, nothing of value. Ezekiel 7:11 (NIV). The invasion will bring total societal collapse. So many people will die that there will be no lamentation for their fate. The usual burial practices will not be carried out.

The day of judgement approaches (12-13) and it will be a time of despair for all. Everyday business transactions will be meaningless as the population faces extermination or captivity. Neither the buyer nor the seller will find cause for rejoicing or mourning as the entire population will be consumed by the wrath of God. The buyer will not rejoice in having negotiated a favourable deal for he will never enjoy what he has purchased. The seller will not mourn over what he has parted with for it will be taken away from him in any case. The invaders will take everything, there will be nothing left to buy or sell.

The usual protections of property laws, like those in Leviticus (Lev 25:14, 24-28) regarding the Year of Jubilee, will be irrelevant in the face of such widespread destruction. Every fiftieth year property that had been sold would revert to the original owner or his heir, thus ensuring the protection of a family’s inheritance, i.e. ancestral land. Those who have sold property will not be able to reclaim it, even if they are still alive, because they will be in captivity.

The vision concerning the people (the whole multitude) will not turn back; i.e. the prophecy will not be reversed. Because of their sins they will not be able to preserve their lives.

MILITARY COLLAPSE 7:14-16

Despite the sounding of a trumpet to prepare for war no-one will respond. God’s wrath will paralyse the people, rendering them defenceless against the Chaldean invaders.

The judgement will come through external threats such as war (sword) and internal afflictions like pestilence and famine. Whether people are in the field or in the city, death will be inevitable. Those who escape the city will be killed by the invaders and those under siege inside the city will die of famine and plague. This repeats the prophecy of the three-fold judgement (sword, famine, pestilence) already given in 5:2, 12 and 6:11. According to v.16 some may flee to the mountains but they will be overwhelmed by their guilt and grief and ‘mourn like doves of the valleys’ (Isa 38:14; 59:11).

SIGNS OF DESPAIR (7:17-22)

The coming judgement will induce such terror that the entire population will be physically weak and feeble. They will wear sackcloth, a sign of mourning and repentance, and display horror and shame. They will show their grief by shaving their heads (see Mic1:16), a practice that was forbidden in Deut 14:1; especially for priests Lev 21:5; Ezek 44:20. The picture seems to be that they will dress in sackcloth but wear horror as an outer garment.

Silver and gold, which have been the cause of their spiritual stumbling, will not be able to ‘deliver them in the day of the wrath of the Lord.’ It will become worthless because there will be no food available to buy. They will therefore throw away their wealth (for similar see Isa 2:7-8, 20) in disgust because it has become ‘detestable’ (KJV ‘removed’). The word niddāh means a woman’s menstrual flow. In the Old Testament it refers to something regarded as impure, filthy, and unclean (Lev 20:21; Ez 9:11; Lam 1:17). It occurs again in the next verse, v.20.

Speaking of the whole nation in the singular as ‘he’ and ‘his’ the prophecy says that the Lord had given them wealth but since in their pride (KJV ‘majesty) they turned it into abominable idols, the Lord will make it an unclean thing (niddāh) to them (KJV ‘set it far from them’).

God will allow their wealth to be plundered and defiled by foreign invaders. ‘They shall pollute it’ simply means that the precious metals that have been made into idols will not be used for religious purposes but rather put to common use. There is no suggestion that the idols are holy. ‘Pollute’ (ḥālal) in that same sense occurs again in the next verse, v. 22.

God will turn his face away from his people, symbolizing his withdrawal of help and protection from them. This will allow the heathen enemy robbers to desecrate his ‘treasure’ (KJV ‘secret place‘). Some commentators view this as a reference to the temple and its destruction by the invaders but in Hebrew ‘temple’ is masculine. Greenberg (1983, p. 154) points out: ‘Judging from the feminine suffixes in the next clause (“it”) this is an epithet of the city or land of vs. 23 (both fem. in Hebrew); so T (“the land in which my Presence dwells).’

In this passage the Babylonians are referred to in disparaging terms (cp. Ezek 28:7; 30:11) as ‘the strangers’ (v.21), ‘the wicked of the earth’ (v.21), ‘robbers’ (v.22) and ‘the worst of the heathen’ (v.24).

MAKE THE CHAIN 7:23-25

The instruction ‘make the chain’ tells Ezekiel to perform another symbolic action that conjures up an image of captivity and exile (cp. Jer 27:2; Nah 3:10). He is to forge a chain. Jerusalem’s crimes will lead to its downfall; it is full of violence and capital crimes (lit. judgements of blood). Foreign conquerors (‘the evil ones of the heathen’ i.e. the worst of) will occupy Israelite homes, defile their sacred places and end their pride and power.

The conquest of the land, the destruction of holy sites, the occupation of homes by the invaders, and deportation fulfil the covenant curses of Leviticus chapter 26:31-33. Despite desperate attempts to bring about peace their efforts will be in vain and horror will certainly come upon them.

INEFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP 7:26-27

Calamity will be compounded by a lack of guidance. Prophets, priests and elders will have no answers as God will have withdrawn. There will be no words of revelation, knowledge or counsel and as a result all ranks of the population, the king, the prince (tribal chieftain), and the people of the land will be will be stricken with fear and despair.

God will bring on them the the evil that they have done to others. The judgement will be a direct consequence of their deeds and it will ensure that they recognize YHWH’s sovereignty and authority – ‘they shall know that I am the Lord.’

SUMMATION

This concludes the first major unit of the book, marking the end of the initial cycle of prophecies (chapters 4-7) which predicts dreadful judgements upon Judah and Jerusalem. Chapter 7 characterises these as retribution for their violence (7:7-11), improper use of wealth (7: 19-20), and idolatrous practices (7:20). It emphasises that they will be punished in accordance with their deeds (7:8, 9, 27) so they will suffer violence (7:25), their wealth will be unable to save them (7:19) and their holy places will be destroyed and defiled (7:24). This seventh chapter of Ezekiel presents a vivid depiction of impending judgment upon Judah and Jerusalem for their sins, highlighting the severity and inevitability of God’s wrath.

Posted in Exposition

AN ORACLE ADDRESSED TO THE MOUNTAINS OF ISRAEL – EZEKIEL 6:1-14

Posted on by writtenexposition

Ezekiel Chapter 6:

The chapter may be simply divided as follows:

1-4 PREDICTION

5-7 DESOLATION

8-10 PRESERVATION

11-14 LAMENTATION

INTRODUCTION

Ezekiel chapter six, like chapters four, five and seven, predicts severe judgements on the people and land of Judah. The structure of this chapter is similar to that of chapters thirty-five and thirty-six, which are also addressed to mountains. Chapter thirty-five is addressed to Mount Seir and the mountains of Edom and chapter thirty-six to the mountains of Israel. All three chapters (6, 35 and 36) have the same basic structure:

  • The word of YHWH comes to the prophet.
  • A prophecy is addressed to the mountain(s).
  • Bloodshed, death and destruction are predicted.
  • The power of the Lord is recognized.

1-4 PREDICTION

In v.1 the word of YHWH comes to the prophet with an instruction (v.2) to ‘set thy face towards the mountains of Israel’ and address the oracle to them. The expression ‘set thy face’ most likely implies taking up an attitude of opposition. It might also mean that Ezekiel is not to be afraid when delivering the message or even that he is literally to face westwards while speaking (see also 13:17; 21:2; 25:2; 28:21; 38:2).

With the exception of Josh 11:21 the phrase ‘mountains of Israel’ is found only in Ezekiel. It stands for the land of Israel (Deut 11:11 ‘a land of hills and valleys’) and indicates that YHWH will not only judge Jerusalem but also the whole land.

Where there are hills or mountains one also finds valleys, ravines and watercourses and these are all addressed in v.3. Ezekiel, of course, was not asked to literally speak to geographic features. Rather, here we have a technique known as personification – attributing human qualities or characteristics to something that is not human. To the personified locations YHWH issues a threat of invasion (‘a sword upon you’). The purpose of this punishment is that the ‘high places,’ which have been associated with idolatrous worship, might be utterly destroyed.

The cultic practices at the high places were syncretic in that the people worshipped YHWH there but combined this with rituals associated with other deities, such as Baal, Asherah and the planets (2 Kgs 23:4; Ezek 8:16). In connection with this v.4 mentions altars, images and idols.

Altar (mizbēaḥ) – this word is derived from a verb meaning to slaughter and refers to a raised location where sacrifices are offered.

Image (ḥammān) – solar pillar (Isa17:8; 2 Chron 34;4,7) or incense altar.

Idols (gillûlim) – Always occurring in the plural, this is Ezekiel’s favourite word for the false deities worshipped by Israel and Judah. It is thought to have derived from the Hebrew for ‘dung’ and is therefore derogatory and contemptuous. Ezekiel refers to deities other than YHWH as ‘dung-gods.’ YHWH will cast down the slain before the idols.

5-7 DESOLATION

The first half of v.5 repeats the end of v.4 that dead Israelite bodies will lie before their idols. V.5b adds that their bones will be scattered round about the altars. This emphasizes the futility of idolatry. The people would be slain as they sought help from their idols and their corpses would be lying uninterred on the ground as if offered as human sacrifices to those idols. Ironically, the Babylonians would show no mercy to the Israelite idol worshippers, even though they were idolaters too.

Verses 6-7 predict total desolation. Their towns will be waste and the high places ruined. The altars and idols will be cut down and their works wiped out. ‘Your altars,’ ‘your idols’ and ‘your works’ stress that not only did the useless idols belong to the people of Judah but also that they had manufactured these images themselves. Everything relating to the idol worship would be obliterated. That these should be destroyed is the stated purpose for total destruction.

‘high places’ Before the construction of Solomon’s temple as the central shrine for the worship of YHWH rites and sacrifices were conducted at local shrines called high places (e.g. 1 Sam 9:13, 19, 25; 10:5; 1 Kgs 3:2). We read of them first in Lev 26:30 and especially in the Kings, Chronicles and the Prophets. According to Deut 12:2-3 these locations ought to have been destroyed once the Israelites entered the Promised Land but the Israelites, whose God had appeared to Moses at Mount Sinai, easily adopted the Canaanite custom of conducting religious rites on hills and worshipped YHWH in such locations. Unfortunately, they adopted heathen practices as well, especially those associated with the fertility cults, such as male and female sacred prostitution.

The Old Testament uses the following words in this connection:

qāḏēš / qeḏēšāh Deut 23:17-18; 1 Kgs 14:24; 15:12; 22:46; 2 Kgs 23:7; Hos 4:4

zōnāh Gen 38:15; Lev 21:7; Deut 23:18; Prov 7:10; Jer 2:20; Ezek 23:44; Hos 2:5

possibly also ‘ministering women’ Ex 38:8; 1 Sam 2:22

Three of Judah’s kings – Asa (1Kgs 15:12-14), Hezekiah (2 Chron 32:12) and Josiah (2 Kgs 23:4-20) – attempted to quash idolatry, with varying degrees of success.

V.7. Still addressing the personified mountains of Israel YHWH says to them that when they see the fallen corpses ‘ye shall know that I am the Lord.’ This expression is repeated in vv. 7, 10, 13, 14.

8-10 PRESERVATION

YHWH via Ezekiel prophesies that a remnant will survive the siege of Jerusalem and will eventually remember him (cf. Zech 10:9)and repent of their evil ways (see also 12:16;14:22). This idea of a remnant featured in the symbolic act of 5:3-4. Although the message is mainly one of desolation a glimmer of hope lies in the fact that the nation will not be totally wiped out. That God will preserve some is an indication of grace.

Many commentators take the verb in v.9 as passive and translate as ‘I am broken.’ YHWH, like a husband whose wife has been unfaithful, is grief-stricken and broken-hearted by their ‘whorish heart’ and by the severity of the punishment that he must inflict upon them. The use of ‘whorish’ and ‘whoring’ may reference the link between idolatry and impure sexual practices.

Others take the verb as reflexive and translate as ‘ when I will break’ or ‘when I shall have broken for myself’ (i.e. for my own glory or reputation) – ‘their whorish heart and their eyes’. ‘Break their eyes’ is an unusual expression that might mean ‘destroy their pride’ (cf. Lev 26:19). This would cause them to realise that their idolatrous practices provoked YHWH and cause them to ‘loathe themselves’ and repent (36:31-32). V.9 emphasizes the emotions that will be felt by both YHWH and the people.

V.10 repeats the expression ‘they shall know that I am the the Lord.’ This will be because he will keep his word and carry out the punishment. This prophecy is not an idle threat.

11-14 LAMENTATION

Ezekiel is instructed to clap his hands, stamp his feet and wail ‘Alas!’ over the fate of the house of Israel. These extravagant gestures express deep emotion at the draconian punishment to come upon Jerusalem. It is unlikely that the emotion is joy (as in 25:6 where clapping and stamping are linked as well) at the prospect of God’s righteous judgement upon idolators but is more likely to be grief or regret at what the people will have to suffer (21:12-14). Jeremiah also wept over the fate of the people (Jer 9:1).

Verse 11 ends with a further prediction of the three main causes of death that will come upon the people: sword, famine and pestilence. These correspond to the portions into which Ezekiel’s shaved hair was symbolically divided (5:2, 12). Sword equals war, famine equals hunger and pestilence equals disease. Verse 12 explains that these disasters will prevail in different places and in different circumstances: those afar off will die by plague, those near will be killed by the sword and those that remain will die of starvation in the siege. The use of ‘far off, ‘near’ and ‘remains’ makes the point that everyone will be affected. God’s wrath will come upon them wherever they are. Although he was physically located in Babylon Ezekiel in v.12 seems to be speaking as if he were at Jerusalem, since the location of those that will remain and undergo siege is Jerusalem. It is interesting that plague, war and famine are the same penalties which were specified in Lev 26:25-26 for violation of the covenant. ‘Fury’ at the end of v.12 reiterates YHWH’s anger at idolatry. He will certainly carry out these threats.

Verse 13 repeats the picture in v.5 of dead bodies strewn about in front of the idols at their idolatrous shrines and again repeats ‘then shall they know that I am the Lord.’ The verse lists types of location at which altars to idols were typically situated – hills, mountains, trees – and mentions the oak tree in particular. Hosea 4:13 adds poplar and elm.

‘upon every high hill, in all the tops of the mountains, and under every green tree‘

This phrase upon every high hill, in all the tops of the mountains, and under every green tree is drawn upon by various Old Testament authors when describing the high places and groves at which idolatrous worship in Israel took place. Some include all three locations (mountain, hill, tree), others just one or two. I have found the following examples, perhaps there are more.

MOUNTAIN, HILL, TREE

Ye shall utterly destroy all the places, wherein the nations which ye shall possess served their gods, upon the high mountains, and upon the hills, and under every green tree: Deuteronomy Ezekiel 12:2

Then shall ye know that I am the LORD, when their slain men shall be among their idols round about their altars, upon every high hill, in all the tops of the mountains, and under every green tree, and under every thick oak, the place where they did offer sweet savour to all their idols. Ezekiel 6:13

They sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains, and burn incense upon the hills, under oaks and poplars and elms, because the shadow thereof is good: therefore your daughters shall commit whoredom, and your spouses shall commit adultery. Hosea 4:13

HILL and TREE

For they also built them high places, and images, and groves, on every high hill, and under every green tree. 1 Kings 14:23

And they set them up images and groves in every high hill, and under every green tree: 2 Kings 17:10

And he sacrificed and burnt incense in the high places, and on the hills, and under every green tree. 2 Kings 16:4

He sacrificed also and burnt incense in the high places, and on the hills, and under every green tree. 2 Chronicles 28:4

For of old time I have broken thy yoke, and burst thy bands; and thou saidst, I will not transgress; when upon every high hill and under every green tree thou wanderest, playing the harlot. Jeremiah 2:20

Whilst their children remember their altars and their groves by the green trees upon the high hills. Jeremiah 17:2

For when I had brought them into the land, for the which I lifted up mine hand to give it to them, then they saw every high hill, and all the thick trees, and they offered there their sacrifices, and there they presented the provocation of their offering: there also they made their sweet savour, and poured out there their drink offerings. Ezekiel 20:28

MOUNTAIN and TREE

Inflaming yourselves with idols under every green tree, slaying the children in the valleys under the clefts of the rocks? Among the smooth stones of the stream is thy portion; they, they are thy lot: even to them hast thou poured a drink offering, thou hast offered a meat offering. Should I receive comfort in these? Upon a lofty and high mountain hast thou set thy bed: even thither wentest thou up to offer sacrifice. Isaiah 57:5-7

The LORD said also unto me in the days of Josiah the king, Hast thou seen that which backsliding Israel hath done? she is gone up upon every high mountain and under every green tree, and there hath played the harlot. Jeremiah 3:6

MOUNTAIN AND HILL

And there shall be upon every high mountain, and upon every high hill, rivers and streams of waters in the day of the great slaughter, when the towers fall. Isaiah 30:25

Your iniquities, and the iniquities of your fathers together, saith the LORD, which have burned incense upon the mountains, and blasphemed me upon the hills: therefore will I measure their former work into their bosom. Isaiah 65:7

My sheep wandered through all the mountains, and upon every high hill: yea, my flock was scattered upon all the face of the earth, and none did search or seek after them. Ezekiel 34:6

TREE

Only acknowledge thine iniquity, that thou hast transgressed against the LORD thy God, and hast scattered thy ways to the strangers under every green tree, and ye have not obeyed my voice, saith the LORD. Jeremiah 3:13

MOUNTAIN

And hath not eaten upon the mountains, neither hath lifted up his eyes to the idols of the house of Israel, neither hath defiled his neighbour’s wife, neither hath come near to a menstruous woman, Ezekiel 18:6

And that doeth not any of those duties, but even hath eaten upon the mountains, and defiled his neighbour’s wife, Ezekiel 18:11

That hath not eaten upon the mountains, neither hath lifted up his eyes to the idols of the house of Israel, hath not defiled his neighbour’s wife, Ezekiel 18:15

Verse 14 promises that the Lord will ‘stretch out his hand’ in judgement. The result will be desolation and waste wherever they live. The desolation will be worse than that of ‘the wilderness toward Diblath.’ This most likely refers to the Arabian desert which lies to the east and south of the Dead Sea.

The location of Diblath is not known. Various unlikely suggestions have been put forward including;

Almon Diblathaim / Beth Diblathaim – in Moab, east of the Red Sea – Num 33:46-47; Jer 48:22

Riblah – on the Orontes river – 2 Kgs 25:6-7, 18-21; Jer 39:5-6; 52:9-11, 24-27

The oracle concludes with a further repetition of the recognition formula ‘they shall know that I am the LORD’ (vv. 7, 10, 13, 14).

SUMMATION

In this chapter the prophet Ezekiel receives a message from YHWH. He is to address this to the mountains of Israel and inform them that YHWH will bring devastation upon the high places, altars, and sacred pillars where the people have practised idolatry and worshipped false gods. The oracular speech describes how the people of Judah will be slain, their idols destroyed, and their land left desolate as punishment for their disobedience and rebellion against God. Despite this severe judgement, the Lord will leave a remnant who will remember him and acknowledge his sovereignty.

Posted in Exposition

EZEKIEL 5:5-17:  THE CONSEQUENCES OF SIN AND IDOLATRY

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YHWH’s speech continues with an explanation of Ezekiel’s four dramatic performances described in 4:1-5:4; in particular the final performance (5:1-4). YHWH gives reasons for the forthcoming judgements and declares Jerusalem’s privilege, perversity and punishment.

5:5-6 Jerusalem’s sin.

5:7-12 Jerusalem’s judgement.

5:13-15 YHWH’s wrath.

5:16-17 Jerusalem’s destruction.

5:5-6 JERUSALEM’S SIN

In v.5 YHWH refers to Ezekiel’s model (4:1-3) and clearly identifies it as representing the city of Jerusalem under siege. The city is said to be privileged in that YHWH set it in ‘the midst of the nations.’ This expression should probably be taken theologically rather than physically. The city of Jerusalem, i.e. the Jewish nation, was considered central to God’s plans for salvation. Israel was to be ‘a kingdom of priests and a holy nation’ (Ex 19:4-6) and as such was intended to be a witness to YHWH’s power and his character in the sight of surrounding nations (Deut 4:5-8; Isa 2:2-4; Ezek 36:36-38; Mic 4:1-8). The prophet Isaiah viewed Israel as ‘a light to the Gentiles’ (Isa 42:6; 49:6; 60:3).

On the other hand, it is possible that here Jerusalem is viewed as being in a central position geographically. In the ancient world it was strategically situated on major trade routes (e.g. the King’s Highway and the International Coastal Highway) which connected Asia, Africa and Europe. Assyria and Babylon lay to the north, Egypt to the south, Arabia to the east and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Having such a prominent position it was ideally located to be YHWH’s witness to the powers around. Unfortunately Israel did not live up to expectations.

Instead, the nation rebelled against God’s judgements and rejected his statutes; refusing to walk in them. In spite of a favourable position and great privilege, its actions had been even more corrupt than the pagans around (for a New Testament example see 1 Cor 5:1).

5:7-12 JERUSALEM’S JUDGEMENT

Having set out the general grounds for judgement YHWH presents more detailed charges and proceeds to specify the punishments, introducing these with the word ‘therefore’ (5:7, 8, 10, 11), which indicates consequence. A series of phrases in v.7 asserts that they:

  • have multiplied more than the nations around. – ‘Multiplied’ (KJV) does not refer to increase in population but the idea is that they have been more turbulent (Darby; ESV), insubordinate (CSB) or unruly (NIV) than the other nations. They ran after idols with unbridled enthusiasm.
  • have not walked in YHWH’s statutes or kept his judgements. – ‘Statutes’ are generally viewed as instructions relating to duty towards God and ‘judgements’ as relating to duty towards human beings.
  • have not even acted according to the laws of the surrounding nations. This would appear to contradict 11:12 which says that they ‘have acted according to the rules of the nations that are around'(ESV) but the explanation may lie in the fact that the other nations had some good laws as well as bad ones. Israel, however, did not even follow the good laws of the other nations, but only the bad ones. It is those good laws which Israel did not follow that are in view here. In New Testament terms these would be the laws written in the hearts of the heathen (Rom 2:14-15).

YHWH (v.8) is therefore ‘against’ Judah and will ‘execute judgements’ (also 5:10, 15; 11:9; 16:41) in full view of the other nations. These punishments will be unprecedented (v.9) because of the greatness of their abominations. ‘Abomination(s)’ occurs more than 40 times in Ezekiel and refers specifically to idolatry ( see also Deut 7:25-26; 12:31; 13:13-14; 17:3-4). In vv. 8-9 the first person pronoun ‘I’ is emphasized: ‘ I, even I am against thee... I will execute judgements… I will do in thee that which I have not done and whereunto I will not do any more the like.‘ The wickedness of Judah has been unparalleled therefore the severity of the punishment will be unparalleled also.

The ‘therefore’ at the beginning of v.10 indicates that this verse develops the announcement of severe punishment and provides proof of the unprecedented nature of the forthcoming judgement. The language echoes that of the covenant curses in Lev 26:21-39 and Deut 28:15-68. The cannibalism prophesied there (Lev 26:29 and Deut 28:53) involves children being eaten by their parents but here v.10 describes an aggravated situation where children will eat their parents. Jeremiah 19:9 also prophesies cannibalism during the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem and Lam 2:20 and 4:10 record that it did occur. People who manage to survive the siege will be scattered throughout the nations.

v.11 ‘as I live.’ Swearing an oath by his own eternal self-existence YHWH announces that because the people have defiled his Temple with idols (e.g. 2 Kgs 21:7, see also Ezek chp 8), which here are described as detestable objects, he will diminish them (remove their divine protection), his eye will not spare them and he will have no pity (Jer 13:14) on them. This solemn oath occurs sixteen times in Ezekiel (5:11; 14:16, 18, 20; 16:48; 17:16, 19; 18:3; 20:33; 33:11, 27; 34:8; 35:6,11). Here is the first mention in Ezekiel of the idolatry in the temple; it is the background to chapters 8-11.

v.12. ‘Wherefore’ refers back to v.11 and the pollution of the Jerusalem temple by idolatry as the basis of the threat of forthcoming punishment. Now YHWH plainly declares the meaning of the symbolic treatment of the shaved hair (5:1-4):

A third part of the inhabitants of Jerusalem will die of plague and famine during the siege.

A third part will ‘fall by the sword round about thee.’ These will be cut down by the Babylonians while trying to defend the city, or perhaps in the countryside while trying to make an escape.

Another third of the population will be scattered in all directions. Wherever they go they will suffer persecution (‘I will draw out a sword after them’).

5:13-15 YHWH’s WRATH.

Although faint, there is a glimmer of hope here. Despite the severity of his judgement, God’s ultimate purpose is not total destruction. The destruction of Jerusalem will ease the Lord’s anger. This emotion is referred to four times in v.13: ‘anger’ (’ap̱ -wrath); ‘fury’ (ḥēmā -heat); ‘zeal’ (qin’āh – fervour, passion); ‘fury’ (ḥēmā -heat). Because the punishment will not only have been predicted but also fulfilled ‘they shall know that I the Lord hath spoken it’. This expression is widespread throughout the book of Ezekiel and occurs again in vv. 15 and 17. God’s word will be vindicated.

Reflecting the thought of Deut 28:37, verses 14-15 predict that the destruction of Jerusalem will serve as a warning and a spectacle to the surrounding nations (‘that are round about thee’ occurs in each of these verses). Jerusalem’s downfall will be a vivid demonstration of God’s righteous anger and a sobering reminder to other nations of the consequences of sin.

  • I will make thee waste (a desolation, wilderness) v.14
  • I will make thee a reproach (reviling, taunt) among the nations v.14,15
  • It shall be an instruction (warning) v.15
  • It shall be an astonishment ( an object of horror) unto the nations v.15

‘Anger’ and ‘fury’ are again mentioned at the end of v.15 along with ‘furious rebukes.’ Since the Lord judges the wickedness of his own people in this way how much more severely will he punish the wickedness of other nations. A similar thought is expressed in 1 Pet 4:17: ‘For the time is come that judgment must begin at the house of God: and if it first begin at us, what shall the end be of them that obey not the gospel of God?‘

5:16-17 JERUSALEM’S DESTRUCTION

YHWH uses vivid imagery to depict the severity of his judgement upon Jerusalem, likening it to a barrage of deadly arrows in the form of famine, which will decimate the city and its inhabitants. Famine/hunger features prominently in these closing verses of the oracle: ‘I shall send the evil arrows of famine…increase the famine…break your staff (supply) of bread…send upon you famine.’

God’s judgement will manifest itself in various forms of destruction. As well as famine there will be death by dangerous animals (perhaps meaning brutal men cp. Isa 56:9; Jer 12:9), plague, and bloodshed. All these calamities will result in loss of life (‘shall bereave thee’) and the desolation of the city, as decreed by the Lord.

SUMMATION

Ezekiel 5:5-17 discusses the consequences of Israel’s disobedience and unfaithfulness to God. Speaking through Ezekiel, the Lord declares that Jerusalem has been set in the midst of nations but has rebelled against God’s ordinances and disobeyed His laws,, more so than the peoples around it. Because of this disobedience, the Lord will enact judgements against Jerusalem which will be severe and serve as a warning to the surrounding nations. The punishment is described metaphorically as YHWH withdrawing his protection and favour from Jerusalem. This abandonment will lead to calamities such as famine, disease, and violence. Famine will be so severe that parents will resort to eating their children, and vice versa, and those who manage to survive will be scattered among the nations. The severity of God’s judgement is emphasized. He will unleash his anger and wrath against Jerusalem and the harshness of the punishment will shock all who witness it. Various forms of disaster will befall Jerusalem, including famine, pestilence, and the sword. These judgements are a result of Israel’s persistent disobedience and rebellion against YHWH. The passage serves as a warning of the dire consequences of disobeying God and breaking his laws. It illustrates the severity of God’s judgment against unrepentant sin.

EZEKIEL 1:1-3 – INTRODUCTION AND SUPERSCRIPTION

EZEKIEL’S VISION OF THE GLORY OF YAHWEH (1:4-28)

AND HE SAID TO ME’ – EZEKIEL’S CALL TO BE A PROPHET – 2:1-3:15

EZEKIEL’S WATCHMAN ROLE: A PROPHETIC CALL TO RESPONSIBILITY- 3:16-27

FOUR SYMBOLIC ACTS IN EZEKIEL 4:1-5:4

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FOUR SYMBOLIC ACTS IN EZEKIEL 4:1-5:4

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The Siege of Jerusalem: Contextual Background

Ezekiel chapter 4:1-5:4 is a continuation of the spirit’s speech to Ezekiel which commenced in 3:24. In it he receives instructions concerning his first messages to his fellow exiles in Babylon. He is to enact four dramatic performances which together represent YHWH’s judgement that is soon to come upon Judah. The drama relates to its capital city Jerusalem and the consequences of the forthcoming siege of the city by Nebuchadnezzar II.

At that time, of course, Ezekiel’s fellow exiles did not expect anything like that to happen. These prophecies are delivered by Ezekiel early in the period commencing with his call to the prophetic ministry (c. 593 BCE) and ending with the fall of Jerusalem (586 BCE). In 597 BCE Nebuchadnezzar had deposed Jehoiachin of Judah and exiled him along with ten thousand of his subjects (2 Kgs 24:8-16), including Ezekiel (1:1-3). He then installed Jehoiachin’s uncle Zedekiah as a puppet king. With this relatively stable government in Judah the exiles were doubtless looking forward to a soon return to their homeland. They could not have known then that Zedekiah (2 Kgs 24-25; 2 Chron 36; Jer 3) would cast off his allegiance to the Babylonians; provoking a violent response by Nebuchadnezzar. In order to quell the revolt by his Judaean vassal Nebuchadnezzar marched to Riblah in Syria where he established campaign headquarters (2 Kgs 25:6, 20; Jer 39:5; 52:9, 26). From that base his army invaded Judah and destroyed its fortified towns (Jer 44:2) before besieging Jerusalem in the ninth year of Zedekiah. Eventually, after a two and a half year siege, the city fell to the Babylonians in 586 BCE. Zedekiah’s family and the nobles of Jerusalem were executed, after which Zedekiah himself was blinded and transported to Babylon as a prisoner of war (2 Kgs 25:6-7).

Ezekiel’s dramatic performances feature:

4:1-3 A model of a siege – representing the siege of Jerusalem.

4:4-8 A number of days spent lying on his left and right sides – representing the duration of judgement .

4:9-17 Consumption of small amounts of bread and water – representing a famine in Jerusalem.

5:1-4 A haircut and shave – representing the fate of Israel.

Some scholars are of the opinion that because Ezekiel does not explicitly state ‘I did this’ for each drama he may have just described the details of his vision to the people without physically acting out these scenarios. However, I take that Ezekiel literally carried out YHWH’s instructions since 4:12 makes it clear that the bread was to be baked in the sight of the people. In addition, impressive symbolic actions by Israel’s prophets were not unusual in that era (1 Kgs 11:30, 22:11; 2 Kgs 13:17; Isa 20:2-4; Jer 13:1-11, 19:1-10).

4:1-3 A MODEL OF A SIEGE

Ezekiel, once again addressed as ‘thou, son of man,’ is instructed to get a (clay) brick, set it before him, and inscribe a diagram of Jerusalem on it. He is then to impersonate the Babylonians by enacting a siege of the city. In practice, Ezekiel may have depicted siege warfare by drawing but the verbs (lay, build, cast, set, take) suggest it is more likely that he made little models and moved them towards his clay brick. These models were of:

a fort – siege works or a tower, manned by archers and slingers (2 Kgs 25:1).

a mount – mounds or ramps constructed of debris (earth, wood, stone) which were built against the walls of a besieged city. Siege towers and battering rams could be pushed up these ramps and from them attack troops could scale the walls using siege ladders. They would then fight their way to the city gates and open them.

a camp – living quarters of an army contingent. As well as fighting men this would have included sappers (who tunnelled under the walls to collapse them) and siege engineers.

battering rams – these wheeled vehicles had a heavy ram suspended from the roof by ropes, one of its ends being a large metal blade. The operators repeatedly slammed this into city gates and walls in order to breach them. These prefabricated machines were generally transported flat pack and assembled on site.

From the details in these three verses one can easily imagine the noise, mayhem and devastation of ancient siege warfare. Men shouting, rams battering, slingers and archers from both sides raining down stones and arrows at one another, the defenders throwing down flaming torches to set the attacking war engines and troops alight. Ezekiel’s enactment of such a siege that would soon be experienced by Jerusalem must have shocked his fellow countrymen.

Ezekiel was also to set up a flat iron pan or griddle between him and his model of the city and glare (‘direct your face forward’) at it. This obstruction probably represented the barrier between YHWH and the house of Israel and the stare represented God’s angry intentions towards Jerusalem. The visual demonstration of a siege serves as a prophetic ‘sign’ to the house of Israel of the impending destruction of Jerusalem.

4:4-8 A NUMBER OF DAYS SPENT LYING ON HIS LEFT AND RIGHT SIDES

Ezekiel is then commanded to lie on his left and right sides for a specific number of days, symbolically bearing the sin of the people of Israel. Each day probably represents a year of punishment for Israel’s iniquity. This act serves as a vivid illustration of the consequences of Israel’s rebellion against God.

Having impersonated the Babylonians in the first episode Ezekiel now has to play the part of Israel. He is instructed to lie on his left side for 390 days and after that lie on his right side for 40 days. The first period relates to the ‘house of Israel,’ the second to the ‘house of Judah. Ezekiel is told that each day represents one year (vv. 5-6).

Apparently in the Ancient Near East directions were indicated from a position facing east. North (the northern kingdom of Israel) was therefore on the left side and South (the southern kingdom of Judah) on the right. Another example of this in Ezekiel is 16:46: ‘And thine elder sister is Samaria, she and her daughters that dwell at thy left hand: and thy younger sister, that dwelleth at thy right hand, is Sodom and her daughters.’

Concerning the years, we have no idea what dates are referred to. In fact, even the number of years for the house of Israel is unclear for although the Hebrew Masoretic text reads 390 years the Greek LXX says 190 years. Scholars and commentators have fertile imaginations and many ingenious suggestions have been put forward.

Since 390+40=430 (the period of time spent by the children of Israel in Egypt) some see this as symbolic of years of oppression or wilderness experience for Israel. See also Ex12:40 and Gal 3:17.

There is some disagreement as to whether the days represent years of sin or the years of punishment for sin. The first would look back to years of iniquity, the other point forward to years of judgement. Basing their opinion on v.9b some commentators maintain that the 390 years and the 40 years run concurrently, although v.6 says ‘when thou hast accomplished them (390), lie again (40)…’ which strongly suggests that they are consecutive.

There also seems to be no agreement on a terminus a quo (start date). For the 390 years of iniquity a popular choice is the period from the the division of Israel in 931 BCE to the fall of Babylon in 539 BCE. Others think that the period is 390 years from the construction of Solomon’s temple in the tenth century BCE. A valid point made by several commentators is that the dates in the book of Ezekiel are based on the deportation of Jehoiachin in 597 BCE, on this basis they speculate that the 390 and 40 years of punishment run consecutively from then until the Maccabean Revolt in 167 BCE.

As regards the 40 year period of Judah’s iniquity some say it began during the reign of King Josiah (640 -609 BCE) and ended with the Fall of Jerusalem (586 BCE), others that it commenced during the long (2 Kgs 21:1), evil (2 Kgs 21:10-16; 23:26-27) reign of Manasseh (lived c. 697-642 BCE).

A few of the commentators I have read give the 430 years a future application, maintaining that because the northern tribes would not have received Ezekiel’s prophecy then these days have yet to be fulfilled. They assert that Ezekiel is portraying judgement that will fall on all Israel (5:4). This, in their view, will occur at the end of the age.

It therefore seems that this is to be a long drawn out drama. Ezekiel is to lie first on his left side for 390 days and then on his right for 40 days ‘to bear the iniquity’ of the house of Israel and the house of Judah. This bearing of the nation’s iniquity is not vicarious but rather Ezekiel’s period of suffering and discomfort symbolizes the pain that Israel will endure at the hands of the Babylonians. During this display YHWH will ‘put ropes on’ Ezekiel, perhaps inflicting him with some kind of temporary paralysis, in order to prevent him from turning from one side to the other.

Again (v.7) Ezekiel is instructed to stare/glare at his siege model while he is lying on his side with his arm uncovered (see v.4). This may symbolize an unimpeded warrior ready for battle (cp. Isa 52:10). He is also to prophesy against Jerusalem. Perhaps, however, there is one crumb of hope in Ezekiel’s message in that the judgement is for a set period and will one day come to an end.

Possibly Ezekiel did not lie immobile 24-7 but just lay for several hours per day as the passage represents him carrying out other activities like enacting the siege, baking bread, drinking water, shaving etc.

4:9-17 CONSUMPTION OF SMALL AMOUNTS OF BREAD AND WATER

In these verses Ezekiel is instructed to eat a specific ration of food, prepared from a mixture of grains and legumes. This is limited by weight and represents the scarcity of food that the people of Jerusalem would experience during a siege. This action demonstrates the severity of the impending judgment upon Israel.

He is directed to mix flour from six types of grain in one vessel and prepare enough bread to eat ‘ from time to time’ (v.10, i.e. at a set time each day) during the 390 day period that he would lie on one side or the other. These grains are: wheat, barley, beans (see also 2 Sam 17:28), lentils, millet and fitches (a species of wheat). This unusual mixture of cereals was to be baked in full view of his fellow exiles (v.12), using human excrement as fuel. The amount of Ezekiel’s daily allocation of this disgusting food is 20 (Babylonian) shekels – approximately 8 ounces or 227 grams – and his intake of water is restricted to one sixth of a hin – about 0.6 litres. That the quantities are to be precisely measured out (cp. Lev 26:26) emphasizes that these are starvation rations. Ezekiel’s general state of health will deteriorate on such an unbalanced diet. The main point of this symbolic action is that siege, starvation and famine will soon be the lot of the residents of Jerusalem. There will be a shortage of food and water therefore rationing will apply (vv.16-17). Rationing is described in Isa 30:20 as ‘the bread of adversity and the water of affliction’ (see also 1 Kgs 22:27).

Ezekiel is instructed to eat the bread ‘as barley cakes.’ The idea seems to be that of eating them with enjoyment or enthusiasm thus suggesting that during the siege of Jerusalem people will be delighted to have something to eat, even if it is polluted.

In verse 13 the Lord says ‘thus shall the children of Israel eat defiled bread among the Gentiles, whither I will drive them’ (for YHWH driving the Israelites out see Jer 8:3; 16:15; 24:9; 27:10,15), Ezekiel’s starvation diet teaches his fellow Israelites a double lesson: it predicts the forthcoming siege of Jerusalem and also the defilement of the exile that would follow it. The may mean that the food they will eat abroad is defiled since it will not be slaughtered, produced, handled and prepared in accordance with the dietary laws in the Torah. It could also mean that they will be defiled by adopting heathen manners and customs during the Exile (cp. Hos 9:3-4 for a similar sentiment).

Even though Ezekiel was receiving these directions while in a prophetic trance his priestly upbringing seems to have automatically triggered an immediate protest at the instructions concerning the bread. That his problem concerns the use of human excrement as fuel is clear from YHWH’s response in v.15: ‘Lo, I have given thee cow’s dung for man’s dung, and thou shalt prepare thy bread therewith.’ Bread baked over dried cow manure will still be defiled but perhaps to Ezekiel it seems a little less revolting. In any case, it will still sound disgusting and memorably make the point to his audience.

Ezekiel’s request for relief begins with a passionate outburst ‘Ah Lord God!’ and he goes on to explain that thus far his life has not been ‘polluted.’ One would think that Ezekiel’s objection is based on either the regulations concerning unlawful mixing (Lev 19:19; Deut 22:9) or on the strict rules about the disposal of human waste (Deut 23:12-14). However, he mentions neither of these but gives as his reason (‘for’ v.14) the fact that he had never done the following things:

  • Eaten an animal that died of itself (Lev 11:39; 17:15; 22:8; Deut 14:21, cp. Ezek 44:31).
  • Eaten an animal that was torn in pieces (Ex 22:31; Lev 22:8).
  • Eaten abominable flesh – this was meat left over from peace offerings and not eaten by the third day (Lev19:7).

These things bear no relation to baking bread over human excrement but Ezekiel seems to be asserting that he has kept all the dietary regulations since his youth, and cites these three cases in point. It is commendable that Ezekiel lived a blameless life before his prophetic call and that during his ministry his conscience was so sensitive that he instinctively wanted to live his life in obedience to God’s requirements. What a great lesson and example for us today!

After granting Ezekiel a concession on the fuel YHWH further declares: ‘Son of man, behold, I will break the staff of bread in Jerusalem: and they shall eat bread by weight, and with care; and they shall drink water by measure, and with astonishment: That they may want bread and water, and be astonished one with another, and consume away for their iniquity.’ Ezekiel 4:16-17

‘staff of bread’ – means supply of bread, that which human beings depend on for survival. See also Lev 26:26; Psa 105:16; Isa 3:1; Ezek 5:16; 14:13. The siege of Jerusalem will result in the rationing of food and water. Bread will be doled out by weight and water by measure. The people will partake of their daily rations ‘with astonishment’ (extreme fear and apprehension) and will ‘consume away for their iniquity,’ i.e. they will waste away. Ezekiel uses this same expression three times when prophesying YHWH’s judgement (4:17; 24:23; 33:10).

This drama symbolizes and emphasizes the severity of the judgement that will befall Jerusalem. The scarcity of food and water will lead to desperation and despair among the people. This judgment is portrayed as a consequence of the people’s sin and disobedience.

5:1-4 A HAIRCUT AND SHAVE

Again addressing him as ‘Mortal’ YHWH reveals to Ezekiel details of the fourth drama that he must enact. He is to take a sharp knife and shave his head and beard. Using a knife as a razor is a powerful depiction of the judgement that will come upon the people of Jerusalem. The shaving of the head and beard was a sign of mourning (Isa 22:12; Jer 16:6) or disgrace (2 Sam 10:4; Mic 1:16) in ancient Near Eastern cultures and Israelites were forbidden by the law (Lev 19:27; 21:5; Deut 14:1) to practise this custom.

Using balances Ezekiel is to weigh and divide the hair that he has shaved off. This intimates that God is supervising the judgements (see 5:12; 6:12). Unlike the previous three dramas (chapter 4), in this case Ezekiel is to perform the symbolic actions AFTER the set number of days he has to lie on one side or the other (‘when the days of the (mock) siege are fulfilled,’ 5:2).

  • He is to burn one third of the hair ‘in the midst of the city,’ i.e. on his brick representing Jerusalem. This symbolizes the destruction of Jerusalem by fire and of its inhabitants by famine and pestilence (5:12).
  • He is to strike another third of the hair with a sword symbolizing that many people will suffer a violent death in battle.
  • He is to throw the remaining third to the winds, symbolizing the dispersion of the people of Judah.
  • He is to take a small number of the scattered hairs and bind them in the hem of his garment. He then has to take some of these and burn them in the fire. This indicates that even a remnant (symbolizing either those who survive the Babylonian invasion and siege or those who remain faithful to YHWH) will not be spared from God’s judgement but will find themselves in desperate circumstances. This action emphasizes the severity of the consequences of disobedience.

We now move into the next section which begins with an oracle against Jerusalem (5:5-17) in which YHWH explains the symbolism of the haircut and shave in 5:1-4.

EZEKIEL 1:1-3 – INTRODUCTION AND SUPERSCRIPTION

EZEKIEL’S VISION OF THE GLORY OF YAHWEH (1:4-28)

AND HE SAID TO ME’ – EZEKIEL’S CALL TO BE A PROPHET – 2:1-3:15

EZEKIEL’S WATCHMAN ROLE: A PROPHETIC CALL TO RESPONSIBILITY- 3:16-27

Posted in Exposition

EZEKIEL’S WATCHMAN ROLE: A PROPHETIC CALL TO RESPONSIBILITY- 3:16-27

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Introduction

Ezekiel 3:16 begins with a standard prophetic word formula (c. 50 times) that will become familiar as we progress through the book: ‘the word of the Lord came unto me saying.’ It next occurs at 6:1 which would suggest that that 3:16-5:17 is one unit. This unit consists of several addresses by YHWH to Ezekiel and also includes a couple of Ezekiel’s reactions/responses to YHWH’s words (3:16; 4:14).

3:16-21 The Watchman Parable

After a seven day period of stunned anticipation Ezekiel receives a message from the Lord informing him that he has been given the specific role of watchman to the house of Israel. The parable of Ezekiel as a watchman occurs in two chapters of the book (3:17-21 and 33:1-9) but falls into three parts:

Part 1 – Found only in chapter 33.

1 Again the word of the LORD came unto me, saying,
2 Son of man, speak to the children of thy people, and say unto them, When I bring the sword upon a land, if the people of the land take a man of their coasts, and set him for their watchman:
3 If when he seeth the sword come upon the land, he blow the trumpet, and warn the people;
4 Then whosoever heareth the sound of the trumpet, and taketh not warning; if the sword come, and take him away, his blood shall be upon his own head.
5 He heard the sound of the trumpet, and took not warning; his blood shall be upon him. But he that taketh warning shall deliver his soul.
6 But if the watchman see the sword come, and blow not the trumpet, and the people be not warned; if the sword come, and take any person from among them, he is taken away in his iniquity; but his blood will I require at the watchman’s hand. Ezekiel 33:1-6

Part 2 – Found in both chapter 3 and chapter 33

16 And it came to pass at the end of seven days, that the word of the LORD came unto me, saying,
17 Son of man, I have made thee a watchman unto the house of Israel: therefore hear the word at my mouth, and give them warning from me.
18 When I say unto the wicked, Thou shalt surely die; and thou givest him not warning, nor speakest to warn the wicked from his wicked way, to save his life; the same wicked man shall die in his iniquity; but his blood will I require at thine hand.
19 Yet if thou warn the wicked, and he turn not from his wickedness, nor from his wicked way, he shall die in his iniquity; but thou hast delivered thy soul.
20 Again, When a righteous man doth turn from his righteousness, and commit iniquity, and I lay a stumblingblock before him, he shall die: because thou hast not given him warning, he shall die in his sin, and his righteousness which he hath done shall not be remembered; but his blood will I require at thine hand.
21 Nevertheless if thou warn the righteous man, that the righteous sin not, and he doth not sin, he shall surely live, because he is warned; also thou hast delivered thy soul. Ezekiel 3:16-21 and also 33:7-9

PART 3 – Found only in chapter 3.

20 Again, When a righteous man doth turn from his righteousness, and commit iniquity, and I lay a stumblingblock before him, he shall die: because thou hast not given him warning, he shall die in his sin, and his righteousness which he hath done shall not be remembered; but his blood will I require at thine hand.
21 Nevertheless if thou warn the righteous man, that the righteous sin not, and he doth not sin, he shall surely live, because he is warned; also thou hast delivered thy soul. Ezekiel 3:20-21

In this article we shall only deal with material found in Ezekiel 3:16-21.

Speaking in the first person the Lord addresses Ezekiel not by name but as ‘mortal’ and makes him watchman for the house of Israel. In ancient times, a watchman patrolled the walls of a city (2 Sam 18:24-27; 2 Kgs 9:17-20) and was responsible for keeping guard and for alerting the citizens to approaching dangers. Similarly, Ezekiel is appointed by the Lord as a spiritual watchman for the ‘house of Israel.’ Whenever he hears a message from YHWH it is his responsibility to convey that message and warn the people about impending consequences (3:17).

The Weight of Prophetic Responsibility – Illustrating the Prophet’s Task as a Watchman and the Consequences of Silence

In vv.18-21 YHWH introduces the idea of prophetic responsibility and elaborates on the role of watchman by outlining various scenarios involving a word from the Lord (‘when I say’) and possible prophetic responses to it. It is notable that YHWH does not use military style language (Isa 21:6-8; Jer 6:17), which one might expect, when expanding upon the role of watchman but rather expresses himself in legal terms more appropriate to the courtroom. The language is that of a judge addressing ‘the wicked man’ (in the second person ‘you’) while pronouncing the death sentence upon him: ‘When I say unto the wicked, Thou shalt surely die’ (3:18).

Four cases are set out in two sets of two. The grammar is not quite parallel but the meaning is. In each of the two sets we have one example of the prophetic watchman not fulfilling his role and one example of him fulfilling that role, and the consequences of each.

Case 1 (3:18) The prophet is made aware that the death sentence has been passed but does not warn the wicked man. The consequences are two-fold: a) the wicked man will die in his sin. b) the prophet will be held responsible for the wicked man’s death, because he failed to warn him.

Case 2 (3:19) The prophet is made aware that the death sentence has been passed and does warn the wicked man, who does not turn from his sin. The consequences are two-fold: a) the wicked man will die in his sin. b) the life of the prophet will be preserved.

Case 3 (3:20) ‘The righteous man’ turns from his righteousness and commits iniquity and the prophet does not warn him. The consequences are two-fold: a) The man’s former righteousness will not be remembered so he will die in his sin. b) because he did not warn the man the prophet will be held responsible for his death.

Case 4 ((3:21) The prophet warns the righteous man not to sin and the righteous man does not sin. The consequences are two-fold: a) the righteous man will live. b) the prophet’s life is preserved.

In summary, Ezekiel 3:16-21 depicts the prophet’s role as a watchman, emphasizing the weighty responsibility of delivering God’s warnings and messages to the people. Ezekiel’s task as a watchman is to ensure that he communicates to the people exactly what he hears from YHWH. The warnings will be solemn. What Ezekiel will be announcing is a legal decision that has already been taken and will not be revoked.

3:22-27 EZEKIEL’S CONFINEMENT AND DUMBNESS

In 3:22-23 we have Ezekiel as narrator introducing a series of three messages from YHWH, all of which begin with the words: ‘And thou, o son of man’ (3:25; 4:1; 5:1). The first message (3:24b-27) reveals to him further information about the conduct of his ministry. The second (4:1-17) orders him to symbolically represent the siege of Jerusalem and in the third (5:1-17) he is told to symbolically represent the fate of the inhabitants after fall of the city.

A Valley Encounter: The Glory of YHWH Revisited – Ezekiel’s Solitude and the Renewal of Divine Encounter

Ezekiel records (vv.22-24) that he was told to leave the Israelites among whom he found himself and go out into the solitude of a valley, presumably near Tel-Abib (3:15). When he had complied with this instruction the glory of YHWH appeared to him just as it had in his inaugural vision by the river of Chebar (1:1-3:14).

Bound with Cords: The Symbolism of Confinement

Again (see 2:2) the spirit enters him and sets him on his feet, telling him that he is to go back to his house and remain shut up there. Using the ‘son of man’ formula the spirit proceeds to emphasize the strictness of this confinement using the imagery of being bound with cords. As a result Ezekiel will not be able to go out among the people, they will have to come to him (8:1; 14:1; 20:1; 33:30). Although the text says that ‘they’ will bind Ezekiel it is generally understood that the binding will be done by YHWH, especially in light of 4:8. It is not the action of the Israelites.

Silenced Tongue: Understanding the Impact of Muteness on the Prophet’s Role

In vv. 26-27 Ezekiel is informed that his tongue will cleave to the roof of his mouth with the result that he will be speechless except when YHWH commands him to speak. Even then he will only be able to say what YHWH wants him to say and must begin his messages with ‘Thus saith the Lord God.’ The purpose/result of Ezekiel’s dumbness is that he will not be ‘a reprover’ to rebellious Israel.’ What is meant by ‘one who chides,’ ‘one who rebukes’ (compare Prov 9:7; 24:25; 25:12; 28:23)?

Some suggest that the idea of a reprover here is a legal concept. To reprove may perhaps mean to conduct a legal case (Job 40:2), or to preside or arbitrate at a trial (Job 9:33 daysman) and thus ensure a fair hearing. Trials took place at the gate of a city, which is where the reprover would exercise his role (Isa 29:21; Amos 5:10). This view seems to fit well what we have said about vv.16b-21 where the role of the watchman is expressed in legal terms.

The legal dispute in view is therefore that between YHWH and Israel. Ezekiel is not permitted to become involved. He is confined to his house and cannot go out among the people or sit with the elders at the city gate. He cannot see what is going on and react to it but can only speak what he is told to say by YHWH. He is dumb and therefore cannot exercise a mediatorial role between YHWH and Israel. He cannot intercede for them because the trial is already over, No negotiation or dialogue is possible. Communication is only one way; from YHWH to Israel. The decision has been made and the verdict pronounced. Ezekiel’s role is to proclaim the coming judgement.

Ezekiel’s Silent Years

Three passages refer to the onset of Ezekiel’s dumbness and its removal (3:22-27; 24:25-27; 33:21-22). The chronology of the book of Ezekiel would indicate that the limitations of confinement and the state of silence imposed upon him by the Lord may have lasted from the time of his call (c. 593 BCE) for a period of about seven years; ending only the evening prior to Ezekiel hearing the news (from a refugee one year following the event i.e. 585 BCE) that his prophecies of judgment have been fulfilled by the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians (586 BCE).

21 And it came to pass in the twelfth year of our captivity, in the tenth month, in the fifth day of the month, that one that had escaped out of Jerusalem came unto me, saying, The city is smitten.
22 Now the hand of the LORD was upon me in the evening, before he that was escaped came; and had opened my mouth, until he came to me in the morning; and my mouth was opened, and I was no more dumb. Ezekiel 33:21-22

EZEKIEL 1:1-3 – INTRODUCTION AND SUPERSCRIPTION

EZEKIEL’S VISION OF THE GLORY OF YAHWEH (1:4-28)

‘AND HE SAID TO ME’ – EZEKIEL’S CALL TO BE A PROPHET – 2:1-3:15

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‘AND HE SAID TO ME’ – EZEKIEL’S CALL TO BE A PROPHET – 2:1-3:15

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EZEKIEL’S CALL TO BE A PROPHET – 2:1- 3:15

BACKGROUND

In chapter one Ezekiel has a vision of YHWH (Yahweh – the Lord) coming from the direction of the north in a storm cloud, borne along by a strange chariot composed of four living creatures and with wheels which travelled in all directions at once. Above the living creatures is a crystal dome upon which he sees YHWH in human form sitting upon a throne, surrounded by a brightness resembling a rainbow. Overcome by this sight of ‘the glory of YHWH’ Ezekiel falls upon his face and hears a voice speaking to him.

In 2:1- 3:15 Ezekiel reports the speech in which YHWH calls him to be a prophet, authorised to speak on YHWH’s behalf. The speech divides into five sections, all of which are introduced with the formula ‘and he said to me.’

2:1-2 ‘And he said to me‘- Ezekiel is commanded to stand.

Ezekiel receives a direct command from YHWH to stand on his feet; signifying a readiness to receive the message that the Lord is about to communicate to him. YHWH addresses him as ‘son of man’ (son of Adam; son of a human). ‘Son of’ denotes membership of a particular class; e.g. ‘prophet’s son’ in Amos 7:14. In Ezekiel this form of address is used only by YHWH and is a key phrase in the book. Referring to Ezekiel as ‘mortal’ or ‘human being’ emphasizes his weakness and insignificance in light of the glory and majesty of YHWH that he is witnessing in the vision.

When YHWH speaks to him Ezekiel is set upon his feet by the ‘spirit.’ This again emphasizes Ezekiel’s weakness, he can do nothing apart from the power of God. In the call narrative the spirit lifts and set him on his feet (2:2), a hand holds out the scroll (2:9) and the Lord feeds him the scroll (3:2). Ezekiel’s only action, if one might call it that, is to eat the scroll (3:3). The Spirit entering into Ezekiel symbolizes divine transformation and empowerment, preparing him for the task ahead. As a prophet he will have to rely totally upon the Lord.

2:3-10 ‘And he said to me‘ – Ezekiel is sent to rebellious Israel.

God commissions Ezekiel as a prophet to the rebellious ‘sons of Israel.’ Although Ezekiel’s ministry would be to the people from Judah who were with him in exile yet throughout the book he often addresses Israel as a whole (the other tribes had already been exiled for more than 120 years) and characterizes them as rebellious. This is a reminder that misfortune befalls them because they have failed YHWH, not because YHWH has failed them.

The fact of YHWH’s displeasure is driven home by use of the word ‘nation’ (gôyim), also used for the heathen, pagan Gentile nations around (Ex 9:24; 34:10; Ezek 5:6-8). God does not say here that they are his people, in fact, in 3:11 he just refers to them as Ezekiel’s people (‘thy people’).

‘They and their fathers have transgressed against me…’ (2:3). Israel’s rebellious attitude can be traced back a long way. It was a characteristic their ancestors and could thus be almost viewed as hereditary. It is to these impudent (hard of face, obstinate) and stiffhearted (hard hearted) people that YHWH is sending Ezekiel. He is to tell them ‘Thus saith the Lord God’ (2:4). This messenger formula is another key phrase in the book. The messages that Ezekiel delivers do not originate in his own mind but are directly from YHWH, delivered via Ezekiel acting as a conduit.

Since the people are rebellious they may refuse to listen to what Ezekiel says but whether or not they heed the message they ‘shall know that there hath been a prophet among them’ (2:5). That which Ezekiel predicts will come to pass.

Ezekiel is not to be afraid of these people who are characterized by harshness but is to be courageous in the face of opposition. The briers, thorns and scorpions (2:6) are usually viewed as describing the challenging and hostile environment in which Ezekiel will carry out his prophetic ministry (since the first two are plants it is likely that ‘scorpion’ also refers to a thorny plant, e.g. 1 Kgs 12:11). Ezekiel will be rejected and humiliated by the people. On the other hand, the idea may be that Ezekiel will be metaphorically surrounded by briers, thorns and scorpions, which will serve to protect him from the hostility of his fellow countrymen. Ezekiel is commanded to speak the Lord’s words boldly, regardless of whether the reaction is positive or negative (2:7).

In 2:8 Ezekiel is rather strangely exhorted not to be ‘rebellious like that rebellious house.’ Israel has been called ‘rebellious’ in vv. 5, 6 and 7 and now in v. 8 there is repetition of the word ‘rebellious.’ The focus is therefore on Israel’s rebelliousness; it is because of this that Ezekiel is being sent to them as a prophet. Ezekiel, however, is not to be like them, he is to open his mouth and eat whatever YHWH gives him. This command to eat is repeated in 3:1. Ezekiel at this stage has no idea what he is to eat.

In 2:9-10 Ezekiel sees a hand hold out a scroll which is then spread out before him so that he can glance at it. He notices that the writing covers both back and front of the scroll and that it contains ‘lamentations and mourning and woe.’ It would seem that the message written on it is one of judgement.

3:1-3 ‘And he said to me‘ - Ezekiel is commanded to eat the scroll.

YHWH repeats the command to Ezekiel to eat whatever he finds; that turns out to be the scroll, an inedible object. Fortunately for Ezekiel, he did not have to eat a physical scroll, this was happening in his trance-like state. Even at this point Ezekiel does not protest, in fact, he does not speak at all throughout the entire inaugural vision. Exercising unconditional obedience, he receives and consumes the scroll, symbolizing the word of God. He thus fills his ‘belly’ and ‘bowels’ (his innermost being) with it. The act of eating is also symbolic; it emphasizes the need for Ezekiel to fully digest, assimilate and comprehend YHWH’s message before sharing it with others.

Ezekiel reports that the scroll tastes as sweet as honey. The prophet Jeremiah (15:16) also reported that (metaphorically) feeding upon God’s word brought him joy: ‘Thy words were found, and I did eat them; and thy word was unto me the joy and rejoicing of mine heart: for I am called by thy name, O LORD God of hosts.’ (See also Psa 19:10)

3:4-9 ‘And he said to me‘ - Ezekiel is formally commissioned as YHWH’s prophet to Israel.

Ezekiel is now commissioned to go and deliver God’s words to the house (family) of Israel. He is not to speak his own thoughts but to convey the divine message faithfully and accurately. His Israelite audience speaks the same language as him so communication ought to be fairly easy. The message, however, will meet with resistance and rejection. This is emphasized with a comparison. Were YHWH to send Ezekiel to many foreign nations which speak an unintelligible language (like the Babylonian overlords/invaders) they would readily receive the message, in contrast to rebellious Israel, who will reject it.

Unlike the other prophets Ezekiel is not sent with a message of hope that would enable Israel to repent and avoid judgement. He just has to deliver God’s words verbatim in spite of the fact that there will be no response. YHWH already knows (3:7) that the message will be rejected. Israel does not heed YHWH so they certainly will not heed Ezekiel. The success of Ezekiel’s ministry will not be measured by results but by his obedience in proclaiming what YHWH tells him to say.

Verses 8 and 9 return to the thought of Israel’s hardness already mentioned in 2:4. Israel is tough but YHWH will make Ezekiel equally tough. Verse 8 says he will be tough-browed; i.e. brazen (see Jer 3:3). Similarly in v. 9 Ezekiel’s brow will be like an adamant (unbreakable material) harder than flint; i.e. diamond (see Jer 17:1). Again Ezekiel is told not to be afraid and again Israel is described as a ‘rebellious house.’

3:10-11 ‘And he said to me‘ - Ezekiel is commanded to go to his fellow exiles

These verses sum up Ezekiel’s task. When Ezekiel hears all the words that the Lord will speak to him he is to lay them to heart and go and announce them to the exiles (‘them of the captivity’). All the other prophets of YHWH lived in the land of Israel and prophesied to the people there but Ezekiel is commissioned to directly address his fellow exiles; both he and they have been deported along with King Jehoiachin c. 597 BCE (1:2) and are now on foreign soil, far from the land of Israel. The message he has for them does not originate with him but comes from the Lord: ‘Thus saith the Lord God.’

3:12-15 Ezekiel describes his departure from YHWH’s presence and his arrival at Tel-Abib.

Ezekiel describes how that, still in his prophetic trance and experiencing the vision of God, the wind (or the Spirit of God) metaphorically (not physically, see 8:3; 11:1, 24) levitates and teleports him to Tel-Abib. That Ezekiel was still experiencing the vision is clear from his report that he heard the great rumbling sound (of an earthquake) and that the noise he heard was from the wings of the living creatures, the wheels, and the overall movement associated with the divine presence (3:13). The great rumbling sound which he hears symbolises the powerful presence of God. The declaration, “Blessed be the glory of the Lord from its place,” expresses praise for God’s majestic and glorious presence. Possibly it was sung by the cherubim.

Ezekiel describes his state of mind while he is carried away as ‘bitter.’ At what we are not told. He may have been bitter at the adamance of Israel or bitter because he has been called to be God’s spokesman to the people, with no likelihood of them paying attention to his message. In spite of his internal struggles he feels the strength of the Lord’s hand upon him, providing divine empowerment for his prophetic mission, . Jeremiah (Jer 15:17) seems to have have had a similar melancholy reaction to the grievous message he would announce.

Back in Tel-Abib (3:15) with the exiles Ezekiel says that he ‘sat where they sat.’ Sitting among them is a demonstration of Ezekiel’s identification with the people to whom he is sent, sharing in their experiences and challenges. Apparently he is so shocked and overwhelmed by the vision that he sits in stunned silence for seven days.

SUMMATION

In this section of the call narrative (2:1-3:15), Ezekiel receives a divine commission and is made aware of the difficulty of the task ahead. However, he receives assurance of God’s protection and empowerment. The stage is now set for Ezekiel’s prophetic ministry to the rebellious house of Israel.

EZEKIEL 1:1-3 – INTRODUCTION AND SUPERSCRIPTION

EZEKIEL’S VISION OF THE GLORY OF YAHWEH (1:4-28)

EZEKIEL’S WATCHMAN ROLE: A PROPHETIC CALL TO RESPONSIBILITY- 3:16-27

Posted in Exposition

EZEKIEL’S VISION OF THE GLORY OF YAHWEH (1:4-28)

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Ezekiel’s vision of the glory of the Lord is one of the most famous passages in the Bible. It is an elaborate, powerful and awe-inspiring description of God’s presence and majesty. Here is a summary of the key elements of the vision:

SUMMARY

The vision begins with Ezekiel seeing a great storm coming from the north. The storm is accompanied by lightning, thunder, and a brilliant light. In the centre of this light, Ezekiel sees what appears to be four living creatures. Each creature has four faces and four wings. Their legs are straight, and their feet resemble those of a calf. Their faces represent different aspects of creation: a human face, a lion face, an ox face, and an eagle face. These living creatures move with incredible speed and coordination, and their wings touch one another as they move.

The vision continues with Ezekiel seeing wheels, described as ‘terrifying’ (1:18), beside the living creatures. The wheels are covered in eyes and travel along with the living creatures, following their movements without turning.

Above the heads of the living creatures, Ezekiel sees a firmament (dome) that resembles a crystal expanse. Above it is a throne-like structure that appears like sapphire, and upon the throne is a figure that looks like a man. This figure shines with a brilliant light and is surrounded by a radiance that resembles a rainbow.

The vision concludes with Ezekiel understanding that this extraordinary sight represents the glory of the Lord.

COMMENTS

From verse four Ezekiel attempts to describe what he sees. The opening words are ‘And I saw.’ The expression occurs again in vv. 15 and 27.

He observes a whirlwind, symbolizing a powerful and dynamic force, coming from the north. Jeremiah also spoke of God’s judgement as a whirlwind (23:19; 25:32). In the ancient Near East there was a notion that the gods dwelt in the north. Ancient Canaanites (e.g. Hurrians, Hittites) believed that Baal lived at Mount Zaphon (zaphon became the Hebrew word for northward, the direction ‘north’). The Babylonians also believed that the gods resided in the north. Isa 14:13 refers to this belief by the nations. In Job 26:7; 37:22 the north is viewed as the opposite of earth; perhaps suggesting heaven as God’s home.

Israelites associated ‘the north’ with threats from hostile forces like Assyria and Babylonia. Ezekiel later prophesies that the final invasion of Israel before complete restoration will come from the north (38:6,15). From Ezekiel’s perspective, it is also the direction from which the Babylonian army will invade Judah.

The whirlwind is accompanied by a great cloud with blazing fire that seems to be consuming itself. In the Bible theophanies (appearances of God) are often described in terms of an atmospheric storm (Ex 19:16-18; Deut 33:2; Judg 5:4; Job 38:1; 40:6; Psa 18:7–15; 29:3–9; 50:3; 97:1-5; 104:3; Isa 29:6; Jer 23:19; Nah 1:3; Hab 3:8-15; Zech 9:14).

The cloud contains a fire, of which Ezekiel says ‘and a brightness about it.’ This is repeated in 1:27. The same word is used in Dan 12:3 of the brightness of heaven. The brightness and radiance of the fire are ‘like’ amber, which suggests a golden, glowing colour. The LXX and Vulgate translate ‘amber’ as ‘electrum’ – a shiny metal compounded of four parts gold and one silver (white gold). The only biblical occurrences of the word are in Ezekiel 1:4, 27; 8:2.

The storm, cloud and fire are symbols of wrath which together communicate the idea of the awe-inspiring presence and majesty of God.

Notice that Ezekiel avoids speaking of Yahweh in tangible terms. He describes God in the language of simile, using the terms ‘like’, ‘as’, ‘appearance’ or ‘likeness’ (1;4, 5, 13,16, 22, 24, 26, 27). Yahweh is indescribable, thus Ezekiel uses these words meaning ‘as it were’.

Within the whirlwind and fire, Ezekiel sees the ‘likeness’ of four living creatures (ḥayyāh -wild animals, as opposed to domestic animals). Verses 5b-14 give a description of these creatures. They have a human-like appearance, which probably implies that they possess intelligence and understanding. Each of them has (one head with) four faces, and four wings. Obviously supernatural beings, they are identified as cherubim in Ezek 10:1-22.

Ezekiel notes that their legs are straight, resembling the legs of a calf. Probably each creature has just one leg (Heb: ‘a straight foot’) with a hoof like a calf’s hoof, but, since Ezekiel says they were humanoid (presumably one head, human hands), he may mean that they have two legs each. Their hooves have a sparkling appearance, reminiscent of burnished bronze. The legs are described as ‘straight’. Some interpret this as meaning that the legs are parallel, others that they have no knee joints by which to bend their legs. This would imply that they never sit or lie down; they are constantly on the move.

1:10 describes the faces in some detail.

Lion – fearsome beast – Num 23:24; 24:9; Judg 14:18; 2 Sam 1:23.

Eagle – magnificent bird – Deut 28:49; 2 Sam 1:23; Job 39:27-30; Jer 48:40; Lam 4:19.

Ox – prized domestic animal – Ex 21:35- 22:15; Job 21:10; Prov 14:4.

Man – rules over over the animal kingdom – Gen 1:28; Psa 8:6-8.

From Ezekiel’s viewpoint (the south) coming towards him from the north was the human face at the front, the eagle face behind, the lion face to the right, the ox face to the left. In Ezekiel 10:14 the ox face has been changed to the face of a cherub and is called ‘the first face’.

In 1:8-9 and again in 1:11-12 their wings and movement are described. The four beings are connected to each other by two wings, thus forming a square. Two expressions are used in 1:9 and again in 1:12 to describe their movement:

a) ‘they turned not when they went’ and

b) ‘they went every one straight forward’.

Later, in v.24, Ezekiel describes the noise of the wings.

There are four wheels, representing mobility, under the four creatures. Each has the appearance of a wheel spinning within a wheel. They are described in vv. 15-21. The high rims (rings , v.18) are full of eyes – symbolizing the Lord’s omniscience (2 Chron 16:9; Zech 4:10, cp Rev 4:6, 8).

1:19-21 The wheels and the creatures move together as directed by the spirit. In 1:4 rûaḥ (wind, mind, breath, spirit) is translated ‘wind’, but in v.12 it is generally read as ‘spirit’. ‘The spirit of the living creature was in the wheels’ is usually interpreted as referring to the divine spirit. The LXX and Vulgate, however, render it ‘the spirit of life’, i.e. the life-giving spirit of the Lord. It may be, however, that Ezekiel just means that propulsion comes from the wind created by the whirling of the wheels. Ezek 10:13 says: ‘As for the wheels, they were called in my hearing the whirling wheels.’ (ESV). The cherubim look straight ahead, not up, as they move along.

Verse 22 introduces the firmament (dome, broad expanse, platform) above the heads of the four creatures (‘living creature’ – collective noun in the singular, see v.16 ‘the four had one likeness’). The best known use of this word ‘firmament’ is in Gen 1:6 where it is used of the heavens in the description of the second day of creation.

Although the passage primarily focuses on the visual aspects of Ezekiel’s vision we learn that his revelatory experience contained audio as well (1:24, 25, 28). In connection with the platform being borne by the creature Ezekiel mentions the great noise made by the wings (v.24). It is like ‘the noise of many waters’, ‘the sound of the Almighty’, and ‘the tumult of an army’. Ezekiel not only hears the noise of the wings below the expanse but also when the creatures let down their wings and stand still he hears a voice (or noise, sound) coming from above it; from the throne of the Lord.

The throne seems to be made of sapphire, which is blue in colour (see also 10:1). Elsewhere Micaiah the son of Imlah (1 Kgs 22:19) and Isaiah (Isa 6:1) saw Yahweh sitting on a throne. Above the throne Ezekiel sees a human figure. This is the appearance of the kabod (glory, lit. weight) of Yahweh in human form (1:28).

From the loins up (in everyday speech we would probably say: ‘from the waist’) this figure has the colour of amber and from that area downward the appearance of fire. The complete figure is enshrouded by a brightness that shines like a rainbow. Light is the overwhelming feature of the Lord’s presence since all the main parts of the vision (creatures, wheels, firmament, throne) are described in terms of fire and colour. The following colours are mentioned:

  • amber -1:4, 27
  • burnished brass (polished bronze) – 1:7
  • the colour of a beryl – 1:16
  • the colour of the terrible (awe-inspiring) crystal i.e. ice, frost – 1:22
  • the appearance of sapphire – 1:26

The vision began with a storm (1:4), in v. 28 the mention of a rainbow suggests that the vision is now over. Ezekiel is overwhelmed by the experience and reacts by falling on his face. He then hears a voice speaking to him.

SUMMATION

The function of this first vision in the book of Ezekiel is to validate Ezekiel’s claim to be a prophet of the Lord. His experience of the theophany / encounter with the kabod of the Lord establishes his prophetic authority. The vision proves that Ezekiel is not like the other Israelite exiles in Babylon. He sees and hear things that they cannot see or hear and must therefore act as a messenger of God’s word to them. The splendour of the glory of the Lord serves as a powerful affirmation of Ezekiel’s prophetic commission and will motivate and give him confidence to proclaim God’s messages to the people.

EZEKIEL 1:1-3 – INTRODUCTION AND SUPERSCRIPTION

‘AND HE SAID TO ME’ – EZEKIEL’S CALL TO BE A PROPHET – 2:1-3:15

EZEKIEL’S WATCHMAN ROLE: A PROPHETIC CALL TO RESPONSIBILITY- 3:16-27

Posted in Exposition

EZEKIEL 1:1-3 – INTRODUCTION AND SUPERSCRIPTION

Posted on by writtenexposition

1. Now it came to pass in the thirtieth year, in the fourth month, in the fifth day of the month, as I was among the captives by the river of Chebar, that the heavens were opened, and I saw visions of God. 2. In the fifth day of the month, which was the fifth year of king Jehoiachin’s captivity, 3. The word of the LORD came expressly unto Ezekiel the priest, the son of Buzi, in the land of the Chaldeans by the river Chebar; and the hand of the LORD was there upon him.

INTRODUCTION AND SUPERSCRIPTION

These verses introduce the book of Ezekiel and provide historical background, as well as some information about the prophet Ezekiel and his message. They indicate when and where he was active; thus situating his visions within a specific historical and cultural context.

1:1 Ezekiel’s prophetic ministry is said to have begun ‘in the thirtieth year.’ The significance of the ‘thirtieth year’ is not explained but it is usually understood to mean that Ezekiel was thirty years of age at the time. The date given is the fifth day of the fourth month. This would have been the month of Tammuz and therefore the time of year was late June/early July.

The vision occurred while Ezekiel was among the exiles by the Chebar, which was most likely a canal near Babylon. It seems that many exiled Jews had been settled in this area. Ezekiel’s location by the canal underscores the fact that he was living among the exiles and sharing in their experiences and struggles.

1:2 Verse 2 provides more detailed historical context by specifying that it was the fifth year of King Jehoiachin’s exile. This information dates Ezekiel’s inaugural vision (592 BCE) and places it within the larger context of the Babylonian exile.

King Jehoiachin (2 Kgs 24:6-16; 2 Chron 36:9-10, also known as Jeconiah (Jer 24:1; 27:20; 28:4; 29:2) and Coniah (Jer 22:24, 28; 37:1), was the son of King Jehoiakim of Judah and a grandson of King Josiah. Jehoiachin became king of Judah at the age of eighteen (2 Kgs 24:8). His short reign was marked by political instability and conflict with the Babylonians. According to the Chronicler he ‘did that which was evil in the sight of the Lord’ (2 Chron 36:9). Jeremiah 22:24-30 has the Lord directly addressing Jehoiachin, prophesying his captivity and exile in Babylon. The Lord also declared that Jehoiachin’s descendants would neither prosper nor sit on the throne of David, thus signifying the end of the dynasty.

In 597 BCE King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deported King Jehoiachin of Judah along with many of the leading citizens of Jerusalem (2 Kgs 24:15-16); including Ezekiel, who would have been twenty-five years of age at that time. Jehoiachin’s captivity in Babylon lasted for thirty-seven years. During that time, he was reportedly well-treated by the Babylonians and eventually released from captivity by King Evil-Merodach, who succeeded Nebuchadnezzar as ruler of Babylon. According to 2 Kings 25:27-30, Jehoiachin was then given a high position at the Babylonian court (new clothes, a daily allowance for the rest of his life, and allowed to dine at the king’s table).

Despite his short troubled reign and his captivity in Babylon, Jehoiachin was an important figure in the history of Judah. His deposition and deportation marked the beginning of the Babylonian Exile, a period of great spiritual and cultural significance for the Israelites. The Exile came to an end in 538 BCE.

During this difficult time Ezekiel, himself taken into captivity during Jehoiachin’s reign, provided spiritual guidance and hope to the exiles over a period of twenty years. The date of his inaugural vision in verse 2 is the first chronological marker in the book. The others are:

8:1 The vision of idols and abominations in the temple.

20:1 Ezekiel’s response to the elders.

24:1 The parable of a cooking pot

26:1 Threats against Tyre.

29:1 Prophecy against Egypt.

29:17 Desolation of Egypt.

30:20 Pharaoh’s defeat.

31:1 The cedar of Lebanon.

32:1 Lament over Pharoah..

32:17 Lament over Egypt.

33:21 News of the Fall of Jerusalem.

40:1 Vision of a new temple.

1:3 Verse 3 identifies Ezekiel as a member of the priestly class. This would suggest that his prophetic message was informed by his knowledge of Jewish ritual and tradition, which gave him religious authority to speak on behalf of God. Note that many respected commentators confidently assert that Ezekiel was a Zadokite priest. This they assume purely on the basis that Ezekiel speaks highly of the Zadokites in chapters 40-48, which contain his vision of how a future ideal temple might look and operate. In these chapters Ezekiel assigns a dominant role to the Zadokites (43:18-27; 44:15-16; 45:4; 46:19-24), presumably as a reward for remaining relatively (22:26) faithful (44:10-11, 15-16; 48:11) during the Exile. There is zero scriptural evidence for Ezekiel having a Zadokite heritage.

The reference to the “hand of the Lord” being upon him indicates that Ezekiel was divinely inspired and empowered to deliver God’s message to the exiles. The ‘land of the Chaldeans’ refers to the Neo-Babylonian empire ruled over by Nebopolassar (627-605 BCE) and his son Nebuchadnezzar (605-562 BCE).

SUMMATION

The opening verses of Ezekiel set the stage for the prophetic message that follows. The fact that Ezekiel received his vision among the exiles by the Chebar canal underscores the fact that his message is directed to the Israelite community in exile. The political and social upheaval of the time is also reflected in the references to King Jehoiachin’s exile and the Babylonian conquest.

Ezekiel 1:1-3 offers spiritual lessons that are still relevant today:

First, we see that God is not limited by our circumstances. Even in the midst of exile and captivity, God can still reveal himself and speak to his people.

Second, we see that God chooses ordinary people to do extraordinary things. Ezekiel was a priest, but God called him to be a prophet and to deliver his message to the exiles.

Finally, we see that God’s word is powerful and authoritative. Ezekiel’s prophetic message was not his own, but rather it came directly from God.

As we read the book of Ezekiel, we are reminded that God is sovereign over all of history, and that his word has the power to transform our lives and to give us hope even in the midst of difficult situations.

EZEKIEL’S VISION OF THE GLORY OF YAHWEH (1:4-28)

AND HE SAID TO ME’ – EZEKIEL’S CALL TO BE A PROPHET – 2:1-3:15

EZEKIEL’S WATCHMAN ROLE: A PROPHETIC CALL TO RESPONSIBILITY- 3:16-27

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OUTLINE OF THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL

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The precise dates given throughout the book of Ezekiel show that his prophecies centred on a specific major event in the history of Judah, that is, the Fall of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. The book therefore divides into two main sections: prophecies relating to the ten years leading up to the Fall of Jerusalem ( chapters 1-32) and prophecies relating to time after the Fall of Jerusalem (chapters 33-48).

The material is arranged in five blocks:

PART 1 – EZEKIEL’S CALL TO THE PROPHETIC MINISTRY – CHAPTERS 1-3

1:1-3 – Introduction and superscription

1:4-28 – Vision of the glory of YHWH

2:1 – 3:27 – Ezekiel’s Commission

PART 2 – ORACLES OF WARNING TO ISRAEL AND JUDAH – CHAPTERS 4-24

4:1-5:4 – The siege of Jerusalem portrayed in symbolic acts

5:5 – 17 – A prophetic sermon directed against Jerusalem

6:1 – 7: 27 – A prophecy of judgement on the land of Israel

8:1 – 11:25 – A vision of God’s glory leaving the Temple

12:1 – 14:23 – False Prophets

15:1-8 – Jerusalem as a useless charred vine

16:1-63 – Jerusalem as Yahweh’s adulterous wife

17:1-24 – The allegory of two eagles and a vine

18:1-32 – Individual responsibility

19: 1-14 – A lament over the rulers of Israel

20: 1-49 – A review of Israel’s history

21:1-32 – The sword of destruction

22:1- 31 – Sinful Jerusalem

23:1-49 – Two unfaithful sisters

24:1-14 – Sayings on the cooking pot

24:15-27 – The death of Ezekiel’s wife

PART 3 – ORACLES AGAINST THE SURROUNDING NATIONS – CHAPTERS 25-32

25:1-7 – Against Ammon

25:8-11 – Against Moab

25:12-14 – Against Edom

25:15-17 – Against the Philistines

26:1 – 28: 19 – Against Tyre

28:20 -26 – Against Sidon

29:1 – 32:16 – Against Egypt

PART 4 – A MESSAGE OF HOPE AND RESTORATION -CHAPTERS 33-39

33:1-20 – The prophet as watchman

33:21-22 – News of the Fall of Jerusalem

33:23-29 – Prophecy against those who remained in Jerusalem

33:30-33 – God addresses Ezekiel: a prophet whose predictions had been fulfilled

34:1-31 – The false shepherds of Israel and the true shepherd

35:1-15 – Oracle against Edom

36:1-38 – Renewal promised to Israel

37:1 -14 – The valley of dry bones

37: 15-28 – Two sticks – reunification

38:1-39:29 – Oracle against Gog of Magog

PART 5 – THE NEW ISRAEL – CHAPTERS 40-48

40:1 – 43:12 – The vision of a new temple

43:13 – 46:24 – The worship in the new temple

47:1-12 – The life-giving river

47:13-48:35 – The Land and the City

Posted in Exposition

WELCOME TO THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL!

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Welcome to Ezekiel! What are today’s readers to make of this strange book, and of this weird prophet – someone who saw visions of fire, wheels and creatures with multiple wings and faces, and who shaved off his hair with a sword and did not mourn his own wife’s death? 

He was one of the writing prophets, men who were convinced that God spoke to them and through them. Their all-holy God controlled not just his own people but also the surrounding pagan nations and would definitely judge sin. Eventually, however, he would restore his people and all creation. When did they write?

These prophets were active for several centuries after the time of King Solomon. Following his death in 931 BCE the kingdom divided into two territories: Israel to the North and Judah in the South.

THE PRE-EXILIC PROPHETS

The prophets addressing Israel (and the approximate dates of their ministries) were;

Jonah c. 780 -753 BCE

Amos c. 765-753 BCE

Hosea c. 755-725 BCE

 In 722/721 BCE the Northern nation Israel was taken into captivity in Assyria and the Southern nation, Judah, continued as an independent state.

The early pre-exilic prophets in Judah were:

Micah c. 735-690 BCE

Isaiah c. 740-680 BCE

The late pre-exilic prophets in Judah were:

Nahum c. 630 BCE

Zephaniah c. 625 BCE

Habakkuk c. 607 BCE

Joel c. 590 BCE

Jeremiah c. 627-580 BCE

In 587/586 BCE the city of Jerusalem fell to the Babylonian army and there was a mass deportation of Jews to Babylon .

THE EXILIC PROPHETS

Obadiah ? c. 585 BCE – we do not know when he prophesied.

Ezekiel c. 593-571 BCE

Daniel c. 605-535 BCE

THE POST-EXILIC PROPHETS

Haggai 520 BCE

Zechariah c. 520-500 BCE

Malachi c 420 BCE

Daniel (Dan chp. 1) had been taken to Babylon in 605 BCE when Nebuchadnezzar invaded Judah under King Jehoiakim after defeating the Egyptians at the battle of Carchemish (see Jer 46.) Some years later (597 BCE), ten years before the fall of Jerusalem in 587 and the Exile, Nebuchadnezzar deported King Jehoiachin of Judah and ten thousand of the political and religious elite into captivity in Babylon. Ezekiel was one of those elite. 2 Kings 24:8-16:

8 Jehoiachin was eighteen years old when he began to reign, and he reigned in Jerusalem three months. And his mother’s name was Nehushta, the daughter of Elnathan of Jerusalem.

9 And he did that which was evil in the sight of the LORD, according to all that his father had done.

10 At that time the servants of Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came up against Jerusalem, and the city was besieged.

11 And Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came against the city, and his servants did besiege it.

12 And Jehoiachin the king of Judah went out to the king of Babylon, he, and his mother, and his servants, and his princes, and his officers: and the king of Babylon took him in the eighth year of his reign.

13 And he carried out thence all the treasures of the house of the LORD, and the treasures of the king’s house, and cut in pieces all the vessels of gold which Solomon king of Israel had made in the temple of the LORD, as the LORD had said.

14 And he carried away all Jerusalem, and all the princes, and all the mighty men of valour, even ten thousand captives, and all the craftsmen and smiths: none remained, save the poorest sort of the people of the land.

15 And he carried away Jehoiachin to Babylon, and the king’s mother, and the king’s wives, and his officers, and the mighty of the land, those carried he into captivity from Jerusalem to Babylon.

16 And all the men of might, even seven thousand, and craftsmen and smiths a thousand, all that were strong and apt for war, even them the king of Babylon brought captive to Babylon.

Ezekiel was therefore in exile in Babylon during the final siege and fall of Jerusalem. Although based far away in Babylon, he prophesied to the people living back in the homeland, Judah.

Ezekiel wrote in the first person throughout his long and complex book which is is grim and intimidating. He experienced strange visions and often dwelt on God’s wrath. The Book of Ezekiel, however, is quite easy to follow as it is highly organized and precise. The prophet records the dates of sixteen revelations and for eleven of those he gives the year, the month and the day (1:2; 8:1; 20:1; 24:1; 29:1; 29:17; 30:20; 31:1; 32:21; 33:21; 40:1).

Posted in Exposition

THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL – BIBLIOGRAPHY

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BOOKS

Adams, J, 1928, The Hebrew Prophets and Their Message for To-day, T & T Clark, Edinburgh

Anderson, L. 1997, They Smell Like Sheep, Howard Books, New York

Berry, B. 2022, Ezekiel’s Temple, Scripture Teaching Library, Northern Ireland

Biggs, C. R. 1996, The Book of Ezekiel, Epworth Press, London

Bishop, E. F. F. 1962, Prophets of Palestine, Lutterworth Press, Cambridge

Brueggemann, W. and Miller, P. 2000, Texts That Linger, Words That Explode, Fortress Press, Minneapolis

Carro, D., Poe, J. T., Zorzoli, R.O. and Mundo, E. 2009, Comentario Bíblico Mundo Hispano, Casa Bautista of Pubns, El Paso

Carvalho, C. L. and Niskanen, P. V. 2012, Ezekiel, Daniel, Volume 16 in New Collegeville Bible Commentary: Old Testament, Liturgical Press, Collegeville

Christman, A G. R., 2005 What Did Ezekiel See? Brill, Leiden

Cook, S. L. and Patton, C. 2004, Ezekiel’s Hierarchical World: Wrestling with a Tiered Reality, Brill, Boston

Craigie, P. C. 1983, Ezekiel in the Daily Study Bible, Saint Andrew Press, Edinburgh

Davidson, A. B. 1893. The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel, with Notes and Introduction, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Davis, E.F., 1989,  Swallowing the Scroll : Textuality and Dynamics of Discourse in Ezekiel’s Prophecy, The Almond Press, Sheffield

Davis, M. C. 2014, Living With The Glory Of The Lord: Ezekiel’s Prophecy, John Ritchie Ltd., Kilmarnock

Dempsey, C. J. 2000, The Prophets: a Liberation-Critical Reading, Fortress Press, Minneapolis

Eichrodt, W, 1970, Ezekiel: a Commentary in Old Testament Library, SCM Press, London

Ellison, H. E. 1958, Men Spake from God: Studies in the Hebrew Prophets, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids

Gaebelein, A. C. 1918, The Prophet Ezekiel: An Analytical Exposition, Fleming H. Revell Company, London

Gingrich, R. E. 2005, The Book of Ezekiel in Outline Form, Riverside Printing, Memphis,

Greenberg, M. 1983, Ezekiel 1-20 in The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries, Doubleday & Company, New York

Haran, M. 1985, Temples and Temple-service in Ancient Israel, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake

Heaton, E. W. 2001. The Old Testament Prophets: A Short Introduction, Oneworld Publications, London

Hewlett, H. C. 1962, The Companion of the Way, Moody Press, Chicago

Hoeck, A. and Manhardt, L. 2010, Ezekiel, Hebrews, Revelation in Come and See: Catholic Bible Study Series, Emmaus Road Publishing, Steubenville, Ohio

Jeffery, P. 2005, Opening Up Ezekiel’s Visions, Day One Publications, Leominster

Job, J, 1983, Watchman in Babylon: A Study Guide to Ezekiel, Paternoster Press, Exeter

Johnson, A. 1979, The Cultic Prophet and Israel’s Psalmody, University of Wales Press, Cardiff

Johnson, A. R. 1962. The Cultic Prophet in Ancient Israel, University of Wales Press, Cardiff

Johnson, D. 2010, A Commentary on the Book of Ezekiel, Darren Johnson

Kamionkowski , S. T. and Kim, W. (eds) 2010, Bodies, Embodiment, and Theology of the Hebrew Bible, T & T Clark International, New York

Kraus, H-J, 1966. Worship in Israel: A Cultic History of the Old Testament, Basil Blackwell, Oxford

‌Kutsko, J.F., 2000, Between Heaven and Earth : Divine Presence and Absence in the Book of Ezekiel, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake

Lang, B. 1983. Monotheism and the Prophetic Minority: An Essay in Biblical History and Sociology (Social World of Biblical Antiquity No. 1), Sheffield Academic Press

Legge, D. 2001, Ezekiel: A Study of His Book, Preach The Word, Portadown

Levine, B. A. 1997. In the Presence of the Lord: A Study of Cult and Some Cultic Terms in Ancient Israel (Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity). Brill Academic, Leiden

Lucas, E. 2002, Ezekiel: A Bible Commentary for Every Day in The People’s Bible Commentary Series, The Bible Reading Fellowship, Oxford

McKeating, H. 1995. Ezekiel, Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield

Matties, G. 1990, Ezekiel 18 and the Rhetoric of Moral Discourse, Scholars Press, Atlanta

‌Melvin, D.P., 2013,  The Interpreting Angel Motif in Prophetic and Apocalyptic Literature. Fortress Press, Minneapolis

Moughtin, S. 2008, Sexual and Marital Metaphors in Hosea, Jeremiah, Isaiah, and Ezekiel, Oxford University Press

Olley, J. W. 2009, Ezekiel: A Commentary Based on Iezekiēl in Codex Vaticanus, Brill, Leiden

Patmore, H.M.,  2012, Adam, Satan, and the King of Tyre, Brill., Leiden

Prévost, J. 1997, How to read the Prophets, Continuum, New YorkPower, B. A, 2000, Iconographic Windows to Ezekiel’s World, National Library of Canada, Ottawa

Renz, T. 1999, The Rhetorical Function of the Book of Ezekiel, Brill, Leiden

Riddle, J. 2022, Ezekiel: Coming Back from Exile, John Ritchie Ltd., Kilmarnock

Robinson, T. H. 1948, Prophecy and Prophets in Ancient Israel, Duckworth, London

Rofé, A. 1997, Introduction to the Prophetic Literature, Sheffield Academic Press

Rowley, H. H. 2010. Worship in Ancient Israel: Its Forms and Meaning, Wipf & Stock, Eugene, Oregon

Ruiz, A. and Asurmendi, J. M. 1990,  Ezequiel, Editorial Verbo Divino, Navarra

Ruthven, J. M. 2003, The Prophecy That is Shaping History: New Research on Ezekiel’s Vision of the End, Xulon Press, Fairfax

Sanford, W., Hubbard, D. A., Bush, F. W. and Allen, L. C., 1996,  Old Testament Survey : the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament, W.B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids

Sawyer, J. F. A, 1993. Prophecy and the Biblical Prophets, Oxford University Press

Strine, C.A., 2013, Sworn Enemies: the Divine Oath, the Book of Ezekiel, and the Polemics of Exile,Walter de Gruyter, Berlin

Taylor, J. B. 1984, Ezekiel in Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, Inter-Varsity Press, Leicester

‌Tooman, W.A., 2011, Gog of Magog: Reuse of Scripture and Compositional Technique in Ezekiel 38–39, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen

Toy, C. H. 1899, The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel: A New English Translation with Explanatory Notes and Pictorial Illustrations, Dodd, Mead and Company, New York

Vaughan, P. H. 1974. The Meaning of ‘Bama’ in the Old Testament: A Study of Etymological, Textual and Archaeological Evidence, Cambridge University Press.

Von Rad, G. 1972. The Message of the Prophets, Harper & Row Publishers, New York

Westermann, C. 1991, Basic Forms of Prophetic Speech, Westminster John Knox Press, Cambridge

Wood, A. 2008,  Of Wings and Wheels: A Synthetic Study of the Biblical Cherubim (Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Bd. 385). De Gruyter, Berlin

‌Yee, G.A., Page, H.R. and Coomber, M.J.M., 2016,  The Prophets: Fortress Commentary on the Bible Study Edition. Augsburg Fortress, Minneapolis

JOURNAL ARTICLES

Ackerman, S. 1989, ‘A Marzēaḥ in Ezekiel 8:7-13?’, The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 82, No. 3, pp. 267-281

Adams, S. L. 2008, ‘Between Text and Sermon: Ezekiel 34: 11-19’, Interpretation, Vol. 62, No. 3, pp. 304-306

Alexander, R. H. 1974, ‘A Fresh Look at Ezekiel 38 and 39’, Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, Vol. 17, No. 3, p. 932

Allen, L. C. 1989, ‘The Rejected Sceptre in Ezekiel XXI 15b, 18a.’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 29, No.1, pp. 67-71

Allen, L. C. 1992, ‘The Structuring of Ezekiel’s Revisionist History Lesson (Ezekiel 20:3-31)’, CBQ, Vol. 54, No. 3, pp. 448-462

Allen, L. C. 1993, ‘The Structure and Intention of Ezekiel 1’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 43, No. 2, pp. 145-161

Almalech, M. 2005, ‘Contextual Aspects of the Saying for the Boiling Pot – Ezekiel 24’, paper presented at the 11th International Early Fall School in Semiotics at Southeast Europe Centre for Semiotic Studies, New Bulgarian University, Sofia

Ameisenowa, Z. 1949, ‘Animal-Headed Gods, Evangelists, Saints and Righteous Men’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 12, pp. 21-45

Arbel, D. 2005, ‘Questions about Eve’s Iniquity, Beauty, and Fall: The “Primal Figure” in Ezekiel 28:11-19 and “Genesis Rabbah” Traditions of Eve’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 124, No. 4, pp. 641-655

Astour, M. 1976, ‘Ezekiel’s prophecy of Gog and the Cuthean Legend of Naram-Sin’, Journal of Biblical Literature, pp. 567-579

Barrick, W. B. 1982, ‘The Straight-Legged Cherubim of Ezekiel’s Inaugural Vision (Ezekiel 1:7a)’, CBQ, Vol. 44, pp. 543-550

Barrick, W. D. 2007, ‘Eternal Security and Perseverance: Ezekiel 33:12-19, Testamentum Imperium, Vol. 1.

Barrick, W. D. 2007, ‘Ezekiel 33:12-19 and Eternal Security’, paper presented at Evangelical Theological Society, Far West Region Annual Meeting, 20 April.

Berry, G. R. 1915, ‘The Authorship of Ezekiel 40-48’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 17-40

Berry, G. R. 1932, ‘The Title of Ezekiel (1:1-3)’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 54-57

Berry, G. R. 1937, ‘The Glory of Yahweh and the Temple’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 56, No. 2, pp. 115-117

Berry, G, R. 1939, ‘The Composition of the Book of Ezekiel’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 58, No. 2, pp. 163-175

Bevan A. A. 1903, ‘The King of Tyre in Ezekiel XXVIII’, Journal of Theological Studies, Vol. 16, pp. 500-505

Block, D. I. 1987, ‘Gog and the Pouring out of the Spirit: Reflections on Ezekiel XXXIX 21-9’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 37, No. 3. pp. 257-270

Block, D. I. 1988, ‘Text and Emotion: A Study in the “Corruptions” in Ezekiel’s Inaugural Vision (Ezekiel 1:4-28)’, CBQ, Vol. 50, pp. 418-442

Block, D. I. 1991, ‘Ezekiel’s Boiling Cauldron: A Form-Critical Solution to Ezekiel XXIV 1-14’,Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 41, No. 1, pp. 12-37

Block, D. I, 1992, ‘Beyond the Grave: Ezekiel’s Vision of Death and Afterlife’, Bulletin for Biblical Research’, Vol. 2, pp. 113-141

Block, D. I. 1992, ‘Gog in Prophetic Tradition: A New Look at Ezekiel XXXVIII 17’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 42, No. 2, pp.154-172

Blumenthal, D. R. 1979, ‘Ezekiel’s Vision Seen Through the Eyes of a Philosophic Mystic’, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 47, No. 3, pp. 417-227

Boadt, L. 1975, ‘The A: B: B: A Chiasm of Identical Roots in Ezekiel’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 25, No.4, pp. 693-699

Bowen, N. R. 1999, ‘The Daughters of Your People: Female Prophets in Ezekiel 13:17-23’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 118, No. 3, pp. 417-433

Bewer, J. A. 1926, ‘On the Text of Ezekiel 7:5-14’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 45, No. 3/4, pp. 223-231

Brownlee, W. H. 1950, ‘Exorcising the Souls from Ezekiel 13:17-23’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 69, No. 4, pp. 367-373

Brownlee, W.H. 1958, ‘Ezekiel’s Poetic Indictment of the Shepherds’, The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 51, No. 4, pp. 191-203

Brownlee, W. H. 1978, ‘Ezekiel’s Parable of the Watchman and the Editing of Ezekiel’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 392-408

Bunta, S. N. 2007, ‘Yhwh’s Cultic Statue after 597/586 B.C.E.: A Linguistic and Theological Reinterpretation of Ezekiel 28:12’, CBQ, Vol. 69, pp. 223-241

Chapman, C. R. 2007, ‘Sculpted Warriors: Sexuality and the Sacred in the Depiction of Warfare in the Assyrian Palace Reliefs and in Ezekiel 23:14-17’, Lectio Difficilior, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 1-19

Christman, A. R. 1999, “What Did Ezekiel See?” – Patristic Exegesis of Ezekiel 1 and Debates about God’s Incomprehensibility’, Pro Ecclesia, Vol. VIII, No. 3, pp. 338-363

Crouch, C. L. 2011, ‘Ezekiel’s Oracles against the Nations in Light of a Royal Ideology of Warfare’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 130, No. 3, pp 473–492

Coxhead, S. 2008, ‘John Calvin’s Interpretation of Works Righteousness in Ezekiel 18’, The Westminster Theological Journal, Vol. 70, No.2, pp.303-316

Daiches, S. 1905, ‘Ezekiel and the Babylonian Account of the Deluge’, The Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 441-455

Darr, K. P. 1987, ‘The Wall around Paradise: Ezekielian Ideas about the Future’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 37, No. 3, pp. 271-279

Day, L. 2000, ‘Rhetoric and Domestic Violence in Ezekiel 16’, Biblical Interpretation, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 205-230

Day, P. L. 2000. ‘The Bitch Had It Coming to Her: Rhetoric and Interpretation in Ezekiel 16’, Biblical Interpretation, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 231–254

Day, P. L. 2000, ‘Adulterous Jerusalem’s Imagined Demise: Death of a Metaphor in Ezekiel XVI’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. L, No. 3, pp. 285-309

Dean, J. 1927, ‘The Date of Ezekiel 40-43’, The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. 43, No.3, pp. 231-233

Dever, M. 1998, ‘A Vision of God Ezekiel 1:1–20’, Southern Baptist Journal of Theology, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 16-23

Dressler, H. H. P. 1979, ‘The Identification of the Ugaritic DNIL with the Daniel of Ezekiel’, Vetus Testamentum, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 152-161

Driver, G. R. 1951, ‘Ezekiel’s Inaugural Vision’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 60-62

Foster, R. S. 1958, ‘A Note on Ezekiel XVII 1-10 and 22-24‘, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 374-379

Fredericks, D. C. 1998, ‘Diglossia, Revelation, and Ezekiel’s Inaugural Rite’, Journal of The Evangelical Theological Society, Vol. 41, No. 2, pp. 189-199

Ganzel, T. ‘The Defilement and Desecration of the Temple in Ezekiel’, Biblica, Vol. 89, No. 3, pp. 369-379

Ganzel, T. 2010, ‘The Descriptions of the Restoration of Israel in Ezekiel’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 60, pp. 197-211

Gardiner, F, 1881, ‘The Relation of Ezekiel to the Levitical Law’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol.1, pp. 172-205

Garfinkel, S. 1987, ‘Of Thistles and Thorns: a New Approach to Ezekiel II 6’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. XXXVII, No. 4, pp. 421-137

Gaster. T. H. 1941, ‘Ezekiel and the Mysteries’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 60, No. 3, pp. 289-310

Gehman, H. S. 1940, ‘The “Burden” of the Prophets’, The Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 107-121

Geyer, J. B. 1986, ‘Mythology and Culture in the Oracles against the Nations’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 129-145

Gile, J. 2011, ‘Ezekiel 16 and the Song of Moses: A Prophetic Transformation?’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 130, No. 1, pp. 87-108

Goerwitz, R. 2003, ‘Long hair or short hair in Ezekiel 44: 20?’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol.123, No. 2, pp. 371-376

Greenberg, M. 1957, ‘Ezekiel 17 And The Policy of Psammetichus II’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 76, No. 4, pp. 304-309

Greenberg, M. 1958, ‘On Ezekiel’s Dumbness’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 77, No. 2, pp. 101-105

Greenberg, M. 1968, ‘Idealism and Practicality in Numbers 35: 4-5 and Ezekiel 48’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 88, No. 1, pp. 59-66

Greenberg, M. 1983, ‘Ezekiel 17: A Holistic Interpretation’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 103, No. 1, pp.149-154

Guillaume, P, 2004, ‘Metamorphosis of a Ferocious Pharaoh’, Biblica, Vol. 85, pp. 232-236

Hahn, S. W. 2004, ‘What Laws Were “Not Good”? A Canonical Approach to the Theological Problem of Ezekiel 20: 25–26’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 123, No. 2, pp. 201-218

Haupt, P. 1917, ‘Dolly and Buck-Tub in Ezekiel’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 142-145

Hayes, J. H. 1963, ‘The Tradition of Zion’s Inviolability’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 82, No. 4, pp. 419-426

Heider, G. C. 1988, ‘A Further Turn on Ezekiel’s Baroque Twist in Ezek 20: 25-26’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 107, No. 4, pp. 721-724

Holladay, W. 1961, ‘On Every High Hill and Under Every Green Tree’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 11, No.2, pp.170-176

Houk, C. B. 1971, ‘The Final Redaction of Ezekiel 10’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 90, No. 1, pp. 42-54

Hullinger, J. M. 2006, ‘The Divine Presence, Uncleanness, and Ezekiel’s Millennial Sacrifices’, Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol. 163, No. 4, pp. 405-422

Hullinger, J. M. 2010, ‘The Function of The Millennial Sacrifices in Ezekiel’s Temple, Part 1’, Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol. 167, No. 1, pp. 40-57

Hullinger, J. M. 2010, ‘The Function of The Millennial Sacrifices in Ezekiel’s Temple, Part 2’, Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol. 167, No. 2, pp. 166-179

Jauhiainen, M. 2008, ‘Turban and Crown Lost and Regained: Ezekiel 21:29-32 and Zechariah’s Zemah’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 127, No. 3, pp. 501-511

Jolivet, I, 2006, ‘The Ethical Instructions in Ephesians as the Unwritten Statutes and Ordinances of God’s New Temple in Ezekiel’, Restoration Quarterly, Vol. 48, No. 4, pp. 193-210

Kalmanofsky, A. 2011, ‘The Dangerous Sisters of Jeremiah and Ezekiel’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 130, No. 2, pp. 299-312

Kasher, R. 2009, ‘Haggai and Ezekiel: The Complicated Relations between the Two Prophets’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 59, No. 4, pp. 556-582

Kelso, J. L. 1945, ‘Ezekiel’s Parable of the Corroded Copper Caldron’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 64, No. 3, pp. 391-393

Kennedy J. M. 1991, ‘Hebrew PITHÔN PEH in the Book of Ezekiel’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. XLI, No. 2, pp. 233-235

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