WHAT IS THE BACKGROUND TO EZEKIEL CHAPTER 28?
Chapters 25-32 of Ezekiel form a unit composed of oracles against Judah’s neighbours, These oracles lie between the prophecies given before the fall of Jerusalem (chps.1-24) and those spoken after the fall of the city (chps. 33-48). They fill the gap between the announcement that the siege of Jerusalem has begun (24:1-2) and word of the fall of the city (33:21).
Chapter 25 deals with Ammon, Moab, Edom and Philistia. Next comes almost three chapters on Tyre (26:1-28:19), a short section on Sidon (28:20-26), then four chapters on Egypt (29:1-32:32).
Chapter 26 contains four short prophecies against Tyre (vv.3-6; 7-14; 15-18; 19-21) which are followed by a funeral lament over Tyre in chapter 27. Ezekiel continues with a similar arrangement in chapter 28 which contains a prophecy against the Prince of Tyre (vv.1-10) followed by a funeral lament over the King of Tyre (vv.11-19).
WHAT IS THE STRUCTURE OF EZEKIEL CHAPTER 28?
1-10 – A PROPHECY AGAINST THE PRINCE OF TYRE
11-19 – A DIRGE OVER THE KING OF TYRE
20-24 – A PROPHECY AGAINST SIDON
25-26 – A SHORT PROPHECY ABOUT THE FUTURE OF JUDAH.
WHAT IS EZEKIEL CHAPTER 28 ABOUT?
1-10 – A PROPHECY AGAINST THE PRINCE OF TYRE
(1) The prophetic word formula ‘The word of the Lord came unto me again, saying,’ indicates that what follows is a new oracle. Since no start date is given, this must still relate to 586/587 BCE, the eleventh year on the first of the month mentioned in 26:1. The particular month is not specified.
(2) Ezekiel, once more addressed as ‘Son of Adam’ (mortal), is instructed to address YHWH’s message directly to the Prince (leader) of Tyre who, as its ruler, represents the city of Tyre. The word nagid (translated ‘prince’ or ‘captain’) is sometimes used as a synonym for melek (king), e.g.1 Sam 9:16; 2 Sam 6:21;1 Kings 1:35; 2 Kings 20:5).
Who is the Prince of Tyre?
There now follows a pronouncement of judgement (vv.2-10) beginning, as usual, with ‘because’ (vv.2, 6) followed by ‘therefore’ (v.6). Tyre is first of all accused of arrogance towards God. The Prince (or Leader) of Tyre, is its king who like other ancient monarchs may have claimed to be divine (cf. King of Babylon Isa 14:13-14,), and boasts that he is a [local] god. Tyre was an island kingdom always associated with the sea and seafaring. Its ruler therefore thought himself to be like Elohim (God or gods) who presided over the primordial waters (Gen 1:2). Verse 2 emphasises that the ruler of Tyre is a man; he is not divine.
(3-5) These verses are heavy with sarcasm as YHWH castigates the Leader of Tyre for the worldly wisdom that has brought great wealth through international trade. Tyre owes its prosperity to YHWH but has failed to recognise this. In v.3 YHWH sarcastically suggests that the Prince of Tyre is wiser than Daniel (a man famed for his wisdom) and thinks that no secret is hidden from him. By way of explanation about Daniel I quote my own comments on Ezekiel 14:14:
‘Daniel – This likely refers to Ezekiel’s older contemporary the Daniel of the Babylonian exile who, though still a young man . . . at this time, had already gained a reputation for righteousness. . . Modern scholars tend to argue that this is not the Daniel of the book of Daniel but the righteous Ugaritic Daniel (Dn’il) of The Tale of Aqhat. Their arguments centre on the fact that the spelling of ‘Daniel’ in the book of Ezekiel differs from that in the book of Daniel, that Dn’il was a figure of antiquity as were Noah and Job but not the contemporary Daniel and the chronological argument that the Daniel of the book of Daniel was too young to have achieved fame at the time this oracle was given. Arguments for Dn’il in the article by ‘Day, J. (1980). The Daniel of Ugarit and Ezekiel and the Hero of the Book of Daniel. Vetus Testamentum, 30(2), pp. 174–184′ may be read online free of charge by logging into JSTOR. ‘The Tale of Aqhat’ may be read in J. B. Pritchard’s ‘Ancient Near Eastern Texts’ at archive.org.’
Through worldly wisdom the Prince of Tyre has acquired great wealth and has precious metals in his treasuries. Admittedly, through his shrewdness and understanding of trading, the city has become very rich – but also very proud.
(6) ‘Therefore’ followed by the prophetic messenger formula ‘Thus saith the Lord God (sovereign Lord)’ introduces the pronouncement of judgement. It commences with ‘Because’ and first of all sets out the accusation against Tyre. Verse 6b is basically a summary of what has already been stated in vv.2-5 that the ruler of Tyre is arrogant and blasphemous because he claims to be divine and as wise as God.
(7-8) Verse 7 repeats the more specific prediction of chapter 26:7 but couches it in vaguer and more general terms – the most ruthless of the Gentile nations will come up against Tyre. In chapter 26 the prophet has already identified those invaders as the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar. They will destroy the ‘beauty of the ruler’s wisdom’ (i.e. Tyre’s commercial success) and ‘profane his radiance’ (i.e. destroy any resemblance of deity). He (i.e. Tyre) will die a violent death at their hands ‘in the midst of the seas.’ Tyre’s position as an island fortress will not be secure at all.
(9) Verse 9 is a sarcastic rhetorical question that reminds the ruler of Tyre that he is merely a human being and emphasises the futility of his claims to divinity in the face of a violent death.
Will you then boast, ‘I am a god!’ to those who kill you? To them you will be no god but merely a man! Ezekiel 28:9 (NLT)
(10) Thou shalt die the deaths of the uncircumcised by the hand of strangers: for I have spoken it, saith the Lord GOD. Ezekiel 28:10
The ancient Greek historian Herodotus (Herodotus, Histories 2.104) recorded c.440 BCE that the Phoenicians, like other West Semitic peoples, traditionally practised circumcision. The Babylonians did not circumcise. Although the Israelites were not the only people to practise circumcision they linked the practice with the covenant with their God YHWH. Most likely that is what Ezekiel has in mind here. Although the ruler of Tyre would not literally be uncircumcised he would die a shameful death outside YHWH’s covenant; just like the foreign, godless, uncircumcised, Gentile Babylonians.
11-19 – A DIRGE OVER THE KING OF TYRE
(11-12a) Once more the prophetic word formula ‘The word of the Lord came unto me again, saying,’ introduces a new oracle, which occupies vv.12-19. Ezekiel, as usual called ‘Son of Adam,’ is to address a ‘lament’ (dirge, funeral song) to the ruler of Tyre, now called ‘King’ (melek), using the prophetic word formula ‘Thus saith the Lord God.’ The funeral lament for someone who is still alive indicates that he is doomed. For ‘taking up a lamentation’ cf. 19:1, 14; 26:17; 27:32; 32:16).
Who is the King of Tyre?
In this dirge Ezekiel draws upon imagery from Ancient Near Eastern mythology (possibly Ugaritic and Phoenician) about El or Baal or a semi-divine figure/hero. He also brings in imagery from the biblical stories of Creation, the Garden of Eden, and the Israelite Tabernacle/Temple. Using highly symbolic cosmic language Ezekiel weaves these ideas together to represent the King of Tyre as someone who embodied all the qualities that God would expect of the ideal human being but whose initial perfection has been marred by pride and corruption. Although highly intelligent he sinned and profaned sacred space that God intended as a sanctuary.
Historians generally agree that the King of Tyre at that time was Ethbaal III. Ezekiel is targeting him as a symbol of the city of Tyre. It is important to bear in mind that Ezekiel is using symbolic language. In chapter 28 Ethbaal III is no more literally in the Garden of Eden or a Cherub than the city of Tyre in chapter 27 is literally a ship.
Having said that, some theologians see a dual aspect in this passage. There is an Adam tradition and a Satan tradition, both based on the motifs in the passage of original perfection, wisdom, pride and a fall. Commenting on the Adam tradition which connects Ezekiel 27 with the account of the Fall of Man in Genesis 2-3 McKenzie (1956, p.326) observes:
I thus summed up the points of contact between the two passages: “There are some indisputably common features in the two passages: Eden, the garden of God, primeval perfection and bliss, a fall. But there are some even more remarkable divergences: in Ezekiel the garden is full of precious stones; there are no trees; the being is clothed, he is endowed with marvelous attributes; he does not keep and till the garden, which is located on the mountain of God; there is no serpent; and, most important of all, there is no woman. To this I should have added that the motif of “likeness to Elohim” does not appear in Ezekiel.
The Satan tradition links this passage with otherwise unrelated verses in Isa 14:12; Luke 10:18; 1 Jn 3:8; Rev 12:19. Patmore (pp.65-67) cites Tertullian (c. 200 CE) as the earliest Christian writer to propound this view and proceeds to explain the thinking of the church fathers on this subject:
The argument is relatively straightforward: God created the Devil, but not as the Devil, rather as a glorious angel, to serve as his right hand man. This angel was, like humankind, created good, and was also entrusted with free will (liberi arbitrii institutus: cf. Jas 1:13–14). This angel sinned and caused man to sin too, but in order to give humankind a chance to crush evil with that same free will and win an even greater reward, God postponed his destruction. Ezekiel 28 forms the entire structure for this argument, with each component of the argument being pinned down to the text. Pride, claims of equality with God, and fiery expulsion from heaven: these are the qualities that the fathers saw in Ezekiel 28:12–19 that convinced them that this oracle was not just about a bad prince. They found support in the Old Testament too, often using Isa 14:12 to support their argument (“How art thou fallen, O Lucifer, son of the morning!”) However, it is ultimately the New Testament that prompts the fathers’ reading of the oracle: “I beheld Satan as lightning fall from heaven” (Luke 10:18) primarily; “that the devil sinneth from the beginning” (1 John 3:8) to a lesser extent.
(12b-13a) HIS CREDENTIALS
‘the sealing of the pattern’ – You were the sealing of the pattern i.e. the model of perfection
‘full of wisdom’ – a superabundance of wisdom.
‘exquisite in beauty’ – perfect
‘You were in Eden the Garden of God’
‘Every precious stone was your covering’
Read more: Ezekiel 28: Prophecy Against Tyre’s PrinceIn these verses Ezekiel uses language reminiscent of Genesis 2-3 although the details are different. A character placed in the Garden of Eden, who was once perfect and wise but who became corrupt and was driven out (v.16). A cherubim is also mentioned. It seems that Ezekiel is sardonically portraying the King of Tyre as the ideal human being. Note that the inner sanctuary of Solomon’s Temple was designed to resemble a garden with carvings of trees and flowers, it also had cherubim (1 Kgs 6:29,32) – see vv.14, 16.
(13b) HIS COVERING
Still having the primeval human being in mind with the mention of covering Ezekiel here mentions the riches that the King of Tyre had enjoyed from the very beginning. The covering is said to have been composed of precious stones, nine of which were on the breastplate of the the Israelite High Priest (Exod 28:11-29; 39:6-21). The settings and mountings (KJV has musical instruments ‘tabrets and pipes’) were prepared in the day he was created. Some speculate that this refers to a statue in the Tyrian temple overlaid with jewels. The King of Tyre may also have had a religious function, probably in the worship of Tyre’s patron deity Melqart (Tyrian Baal) .
(14) HIS CALLING
Ezekiel idealises the King of Tyre as a cherub (composite creature half human, half animal) who has been anointed as a guardian (‘cherub who covers’) on the holy mountain of Elohim – where God dwells (see also v.16). Representations of such overshadowed the Ark in the sanctuary of the Jerusalem temple (which at the time Ezekiel delivered this lament had recently been destroyed) – see Exod 25:20; 37:9; 1 Kings 8:7; 1 Chron 28:18.
‘Thou hast walked up and down in the midst of the stones of fire’ – the meaning of this is unclear. Some suggest that it refers to the purity of God’s presence, to coals of fire on a temple altar or to the shining of precious stones in a temple. The historian Herodotus (Histories 2.44), who visited the Tyrian temple, wrote about seeing ‘an emerald stone of such size as to shine by night.’ There is no equivalent to the stones of fire in Gen 2-3.
What is the holy mountain of Elohim in this passage? Mt. Zaphon, the divine dwelling place in Ugaritic mythology, has been suggested, as has Mt. Sinai and also Mt. Zion – where the recently-demolished Temple of Solomon once stood. There is no mountain associated with the Garden of Eden in Gen 2-3.
Pett comments: Mountains were seen as the abode of the gods, and many a temple had within it an artificial mountain representing the home of the gods. Does this mean that the king had depicted himself as a guardian cherub, a demi-god committed to the protection of the gods, especially Baal Melkart the Tyrian god? Or is the idea that he claimed to be a god, even a personification of Melkart, protected by a guardian Cherub and that he is being reminded that he was set in the garden on the holy mountain by Yahweh, for all that is done, is done by Yahweh? Either way it represents his proud assumption of some kind of divinity as he walked in the temple garden on the mountain of the gods, so that Yahweh here has to remind him that anything he has, has come from Yahweh, for Yahweh is the Creator, and in all Yahweh is in control.
(15-17a) HIS CORRUPTION
The metaphor of the King of Tyre as a cherub is extended in these verses with repetition in v.16 of ‘mountain of Elohim,’ ‘covering cherub’ and ‘stones of fire’. He was blameless in all that he did until the day that iniquity was found in him. His initial perfection was marred by unrighteousness. He was intelligent and beautiful but because of his splendour became proud.
(17b-19) HIS CATASTROPHE
Initial perfection was followed by pride, then a fall – echoes of Genesis 2-3 again. Since the King of Tyre was polluted through widespread trade and violence God has banished him from his presence. Because of his economic crimes and unjust trading practices God will bring the King of Tyre down and humiliate and expose him before kings. Fire will spring up and consume him. He will be reduced to ashes on the ground. He will be no more and all the nations that traded with him will be appalled.
SUMMARY
In 28:2-10 God addresses the Prince of Tyre through the prophet Ezekiel and condemns him for his arrogance and pride in claiming to be a god although he is merely mortal. His commercial acumen has brought him immense wealth but has inflated his ego to the extent that he regards himself as divine. Because of this God will arrange for ruthless foreigners to to invade The Prince of Tyre, destroy his splendour and cause him to die a violent, shameful death ‘in the midst of the seas’; thus proving once and for all that he is only a man
In vv.11-19 the prophet delivers a funeral dirge over Tyre’s ruler, now called the King of Tyre, in which he draws together themes from early biblical history and Ancient Near Eastern mythology to portray Tyre in exalted terms as the model of perfection, full of wisdom and beauty, once dwelling in Eden the garden of God, adorned with jewels, serving as a guardian cherub on the holy mountain of Elohim among the fiery stones. Blameless until iniquity was found in him because of his widespread trade and violence, his pride in his splendour corrupted his wisdom. God will therefore expel him from his exalted location and cast him down as spectacle before the nations. He will come to a dreadful end and all his former trading partners will be appalled.
Both oracles concerning the Leader of Tyre in Ezekiel chapter 28 highlight the general biblical principle that prosperity and splendour can lead to pride and self-exaltation, which God opposes and will judge.
Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall. Proverbs 16:18
Do ye think that the Scripture saith in vain, The spirit that dwelleth in us lusteth to envy? But he giveth more grace. Wherefore he saith, God resisteth the proud, but giveth grace unto the humble. James 4:5-6
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
Joyce, P.M. (2007). Ezekiel. T & T Clark International, London
Patmore, H. M. (2011) ‘ADAM OR SATAN? THE IDENTITY OF THE KING OF TYRE IN LATE ANTIQUITY’ in Mein, A. and Joyce, P. M. (eds), After Ezekiel: Essays on the Reception of a Difficult Prophet, T & T Clark, London
Sweeney, M. A. (2013). Reading Ezekiel. Smyth & Helwys Publishing Inc. Macon, Georgia
JOURNAL ARTICLES
McKenzie, J. L. (1956). Mythological Allusions in Ezek 28:12-18. Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 75, No., pp.322-327.
Saur, M. (2010). Ezekiel 26-28 and the History of Tyre. Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, Vol. 24, No. 2 pp.208–221
ELECTRONIC RESOURCES
Herodotus, Histories 2.44. (2026) [online] Lexundria.com. Available at: https://lexundria.com/go?q=hdt.+2.44&v=mcly [Accessed 26 July 2026].
Herodotus, Histories 2.104. (2026). [online] Lexundria.com. Available at: https://lexundria.com/hdt/2.104/mcly [Accessed 26 July 2026].
Pett, P. (2026). Ezekiel 28. [online] StudyLight.org. Available at: https://www.studylight.org/commentaries/eng/pet/ezekiel-28.html [Accessed 26 July 2026].
Written Exposition 