Tag: Old Testament

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FOUR SYMBOLIC ACTS IN EZEKIEL 4:1-5:4

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The Siege of Jerusalem: Contextual Background

Ezekiel chapter 4:1-5:4 is a continuation of the spirit’s speech to Ezekiel which commenced in 3:24. In it he receives instructions concerning his first messages to his fellow exiles in Babylon. He is to enact four dramatic performances which together represent YHWH’s judgement that is soon to come upon Judah. The drama relates to its capital city Jerusalem and the consequences of the forthcoming siege of the city by Nebuchadnezzar II.

At that time, of course, Ezekiel’s fellow exiles did not expect anything like that to happen. These prophecies are delivered by Ezekiel early in the period commencing with his call to the prophetic ministry (c. 593 BCE) and ending with the fall of Jerusalem (586 BCE). In 597 BCE Nebuchadnezzar had deposed Jehoiachin of Judah and exiled him along with ten thousand of his subjects (2 Kgs 24:8-16), including Ezekiel (1:1-3). He then installed Jehoiachin’s uncle Zedekiah as a puppet king. With this relatively stable government in Judah the exiles were doubtless looking forward to a soon return to their homeland. They could not have known then that Zedekiah (2 Kgs 24-25; 2 Chron 36; Jer 3) would cast off his allegiance to the Babylonians; provoking a violent response by Nebuchadnezzar. In order to quell the revolt by his Judaean vassal Nebuchadnezzar marched to Riblah in Syria where he established campaign headquarters (2 Kgs 25:6, 20; Jer 39:5; 52:9, 26). From that base his army invaded Judah and destroyed its fortified towns (Jer 44:2) before besieging Jerusalem in the ninth year of Zedekiah. Eventually, after a two and a half year siege, the city fell to the Babylonians in 586 BCE. Zedekiah’s family and the nobles of Jerusalem were executed, after which Zedekiah himself was blinded and transported to Babylon as a prisoner of war (2 Kgs 25:6-7).

Ezekiel’s dramatic performances feature:

4:1-3 A model of a siege – representing the siege of Jerusalem.

4:4-8 A number of days spent lying on his left and right sides – representing the duration of judgement .

4:9-17 Consumption of small amounts of bread and water – representing a famine in Jerusalem.

5:1-4 A haircut and shave – representing the fate of Israel.

Some scholars are of the opinion that because Ezekiel does not explicitly state ‘I did this’ for each drama he may have just described the details of his vision to the people without physically acting out these scenarios. However, I take that Ezekiel literally carried out YHWH’s instructions since 4:12 makes it clear that the bread was to be baked in the sight of the people. In addition, impressive symbolic actions by Israel’s prophets were not unusual in that era (1 Kgs 11:30, 22:11; 2 Kgs 13:17; Isa 20:2-4; Jer 13:1-11, 19:1-10).

4:1-3 A MODEL OF A SIEGE

Ezekiel, once again addressed as ‘thou, son of man,’ is instructed to get a (clay) brick, set it before him, and inscribe a diagram of Jerusalem on it. He is then to impersonate the Babylonians by enacting a siege of the city. In practice, Ezekiel may have depicted siege warfare by drawing but the verbs (lay, build, cast, set, take) suggest it is more likely that he made little models and moved them towards his clay brick. These models were of:

a fort – siege works or a tower, manned by archers and slingers (2 Kgs 25:1).

a mount – mounds or ramps constructed of debris (earth, wood, stone) which were built against the walls of a besieged city. Siege towers and battering rams could be pushed up these ramps and from them attack troops could scale the walls using siege ladders. They would then fight their way to the city gates and open them.

a camp – living quarters of an army contingent. As well as fighting men this would have included sappers (who tunnelled under the walls to collapse them) and siege engineers.

battering rams – these wheeled vehicles had a heavy ram suspended from the roof by ropes, one of its ends being a large metal blade. The operators repeatedly slammed this into city gates and walls in order to breach them. These prefabricated machines were generally transported flat pack and assembled on site.

From the details in these three verses one can easily imagine the noise, mayhem and devastation of ancient siege warfare. Men shouting, rams battering, slingers and archers from both sides raining down stones and arrows at one another, the defenders throwing down flaming torches to set the attacking war engines and troops alight. Ezekiel’s enactment of such a siege that would soon be experienced by Jerusalem must have shocked his fellow countrymen.

Ezekiel was also to set up a flat iron pan or griddle between him and his model of the city and glare (‘direct your face forward’) at it. This obstruction probably represented the barrier between YHWH and the house of Israel and the stare represented God’s angry intentions towards Jerusalem. The visual demonstration of a siege serves as a prophetic ‘sign’ to the house of Israel of the impending destruction of Jerusalem.

4:4-8 A NUMBER OF DAYS SPENT LYING ON HIS LEFT AND RIGHT SIDES

Ezekiel is then commanded to lie on his left and right sides for a specific number of days, symbolically bearing the sin of the people of Israel. Each day probably represents a year of punishment for Israel’s iniquity. This act serves as a vivid illustration of the consequences of Israel’s rebellion against God.

Having impersonated the Babylonians in the first episode Ezekiel now has to play the part of Israel. He is instructed to lie on his left side for 390 days and after that lie on his right side for 40 days. The first period relates to the ‘house of Israel,’ the second to the ‘house of Judah. Ezekiel is told that each day represents one year (vv. 5-6).

Apparently in the Ancient Near East directions were indicated from a position facing east. North (the northern kingdom of Israel) was therefore on the left side and South (the southern kingdom of Judah) on the right. Another example of this in Ezekiel is 16:46: ‘And thine elder sister is Samaria, she and her daughters that dwell at thy left hand: and thy younger sister, that dwelleth at thy right hand, is Sodom and her daughters.’

Concerning the years, we have no idea what dates are referred to. In fact, even the number of years for the house of Israel is unclear for although the Hebrew Masoretic text reads 390 years the Greek LXX says 190 years. Scholars and commentators have fertile imaginations and many ingenious suggestions have been put forward.

Since 390+40=430 (the period of time spent by the children of Israel in Egypt) some see this as symbolic of years of oppression or wilderness experience for Israel. See also Ex12:40 and Gal 3:17.

There is some disagreement as to whether the days represent years of sin or the years of punishment for sin. The first would look back to years of iniquity, the other point forward to years of judgement. Basing their opinion on v.9b some commentators maintain that the 390 years and the 40 years run concurrently, although v.6 says ‘when thou hast accomplished them (390), lie again (40)…’ which strongly suggests that they are consecutive.

There also seems to be no agreement on a terminus a quo (start date). For the 390 years of iniquity a popular choice is the period from the the division of Israel in 931 BCE to the fall of Babylon in 539 BCE. Others think that the period is 390 years from the construction of Solomon’s temple in the tenth century BCE. A valid point made by several commentators is that the dates in the book of Ezekiel are based on the deportation of Jehoiachin in 597 BCE, on this basis they speculate that the 390 and 40 years of punishment run consecutively from then until the Maccabean Revolt in 167 BCE.

As regards the 40 year period of Judah’s iniquity some say it began during the reign of King Josiah (640 -609 BCE) and ended with the Fall of Jerusalem (586 BCE), others that it commenced during the long (2 Kgs 21:1), evil (2 Kgs 21:10-16; 23:26-27) reign of Manasseh (lived c. 697-642 BCE).

A few of the commentators I have read give the 430 years a future application, maintaining that because the northern tribes would not have received Ezekiel’s prophecy then these days have yet to be fulfilled. They assert that Ezekiel is portraying judgement that will fall on all Israel (5:4). This, in their view, will occur at the end of the age.

It therefore seems that this is to be a long drawn out drama. Ezekiel is to lie first on his left side for 390 days and then on his right for 40 days ‘to bear the iniquity’ of the house of Israel and the house of Judah. This bearing of the nation’s iniquity is not vicarious but rather Ezekiel’s period of suffering and discomfort symbolizes the pain that Israel will endure at the hands of the Babylonians. During this display YHWH will ‘put ropes on’ Ezekiel, perhaps inflicting him with some kind of temporary paralysis, in order to prevent him from turning from one side to the other.

Again (v.7) Ezekiel is instructed to stare/glare at his siege model while he is lying on his side with his arm uncovered (see v.4). This may symbolize an unimpeded warrior ready for battle (cp. Isa 52:10). He is also to prophesy against Jerusalem. Perhaps, however, there is one crumb of hope in Ezekiel’s message in that the judgement is for a set period and will one day come to an end.

Possibly Ezekiel did not lie immobile 24-7 but just lay for several hours per day as the passage represents him carrying out other activities like enacting the siege, baking bread, drinking water, shaving etc.

4:9-17 CONSUMPTION OF SMALL AMOUNTS OF BREAD AND WATER

In these verses Ezekiel is instructed to eat a specific ration of food, prepared from a mixture of grains and legumes. This is limited by weight and represents the scarcity of food that the people of Jerusalem would experience during a siege. This action demonstrates the severity of the impending judgment upon Israel.

He is directed to mix flour from six types of grain in one vessel and prepare enough bread to eat ‘ from time to time’ (v.10, i.e. at a set time each day) during the 390 day period that he would lie on one side or the other. These grains are: wheat, barley, beans (see also 2 Sam 17:28), lentils, millet and fitches (a species of wheat). This unusual mixture of cereals was to be baked in full view of his fellow exiles (v.12), using human excrement as fuel. The amount of Ezekiel’s daily allocation of this disgusting food is 20 (Babylonian) shekels – approximately 8 ounces or 227 grams – and his intake of water is restricted to one sixth of a hin – about 0.6 litres. That the quantities are to be precisely measured out (cp. Lev 26:26) emphasizes that these are starvation rations. Ezekiel’s general state of health will deteriorate on such an unbalanced diet. The main point of this symbolic action is that siege, starvation and famine will soon be the lot of the residents of Jerusalem. There will be a shortage of food and water therefore rationing will apply (vv.16-17). Rationing is described in Isa 30:20 as ‘the bread of adversity and the water of affliction’ (see also 1 Kgs 22:27).

Ezekiel is instructed to eat the bread ‘as barley cakes.’ The idea seems to be that of eating them with enjoyment or enthusiasm thus suggesting that during the siege of Jerusalem people will be delighted to have something to eat, even if it is polluted.

In verse 13 the Lord says ‘thus shall the children of Israel eat defiled bread among the Gentiles, whither I will drive them’ (for YHWH driving the Israelites out see Jer 8:3; 16:15; 24:9; 27:10,15), Ezekiel’s starvation diet teaches his fellow Israelites a double lesson: it predicts the forthcoming siege of Jerusalem and also the defilement of the exile that would follow it. The may mean that the food they will eat abroad is defiled since it will not be slaughtered, produced, handled and prepared in accordance with the dietary laws in the Torah. It could also mean that they will be defiled by adopting heathen manners and customs during the Exile (cp. Hos 9:3-4 for a similar sentiment).

Even though Ezekiel was receiving these directions while in a prophetic trance his priestly upbringing seems to have automatically triggered an immediate protest at the instructions concerning the bread. That his problem concerns the use of human excrement as fuel is clear from YHWH’s response in v.15: ‘Lo, I have given thee cow’s dung for man’s dung, and thou shalt prepare thy bread therewith.’ Bread baked over dried cow manure will still be defiled but perhaps to Ezekiel it seems a little less revolting. In any case, it will still sound disgusting and memorably make the point to his audience.

Ezekiel’s request for relief begins with a passionate outburst ‘Ah Lord God!’ and he goes on to explain that thus far his life has not been ‘polluted.’ One would think that Ezekiel’s objection is based on either the regulations concerning unlawful mixing (Lev 19:19; Deut 22:9) or on the strict rules about the disposal of human waste (Deut 23:12-14). However, he mentions neither of these but gives as his reason (‘for’ v.14) the fact that he had never done the following things:

  • Eaten an animal that died of itself (Lev 11:39; 17:15; 22:8; Deut 14:21, cp. Ezek 44:31).
  • Eaten an animal that was torn in pieces (Ex 22:31; Lev 22:8).
  • Eaten abominable flesh – this was meat left over from peace offerings and not eaten by the third day (Lev19:7).

These things bear no relation to baking bread over human excrement but Ezekiel seems to be asserting that he has kept all the dietary regulations since his youth, and cites these three cases in point. It is commendable that Ezekiel lived a blameless life before his prophetic call and that during his ministry his conscience was so sensitive that he instinctively wanted to live his life in obedience to God’s requirements. What a great lesson and example for us today!

After granting Ezekiel a concession on the fuel YHWH further declares: ‘Son of man, behold, I will break the staff of bread in Jerusalem: and they shall eat bread by weight, and with care; and they shall drink water by measure, and with astonishment: That they may want bread and water, and be astonished one with another, and consume away for their iniquity.’ Ezekiel 4:16-17

‘staff of bread’ – means supply of bread, that which human beings depend on for survival. See also Lev 26:26; Psa 105:16; Isa 3:1; Ezek 5:16; 14:13. The siege of Jerusalem will result in the rationing of food and water. Bread will be doled out by weight and water by measure. The people will partake of their daily rations ‘with astonishment’ (extreme fear and apprehension) and will ‘consume away for their iniquity,’ i.e. they will waste away. Ezekiel uses this same expression three times when prophesying YHWH’s judgement (4:17; 24:23; 33:10).

This drama symbolizes and emphasizes the severity of the judgement that will befall Jerusalem. The scarcity of food and water will lead to desperation and despair among the people. This judgment is portrayed as a consequence of the people’s sin and disobedience.

5:1-4 A HAIRCUT AND SHAVE

Again addressing him as ‘Mortal’ YHWH reveals to Ezekiel details of the fourth drama that he must enact. He is to take a sharp knife and shave his head and beard. Using a knife as a razor is a powerful depiction of the judgement that will come upon the people of Jerusalem. The shaving of the head and beard was a sign of mourning (Isa 22:12; Jer 16:6) or disgrace (2 Sam 10:4; Mic 1:16) in ancient Near Eastern cultures and Israelites were forbidden by the law (Lev 19:27; 21:5; Deut 14:1) to practise this custom.

Using balances Ezekiel is to weigh and divide the hair that he has shaved off. This intimates that God is supervising the judgements (see 5:12; 6:12). Unlike the previous three dramas (chapter 4), in this case Ezekiel is to perform the symbolic actions AFTER the set number of days he has to lie on one side or the other (‘when the days of the (mock) siege are fulfilled,’ 5:2).

  • He is to burn one third of the hair ‘in the midst of the city,’ i.e. on his brick representing Jerusalem. This symbolizes the destruction of Jerusalem by fire and of its inhabitants by famine and pestilence (5:12).
  • He is to strike another third of the hair with a sword symbolizing that many people will suffer a violent death in battle.
  • He is to throw the remaining third to the winds, symbolizing the dispersion of the people of Judah.
  • He is to take a small number of the scattered hairs and bind them in the hem of his garment. He then has to take some of these and burn them in the fire. This indicates that even a remnant (symbolizing either those who survive the Babylonian invasion and siege or those who remain faithful to YHWH) will not be spared from God’s judgement but will find themselves in desperate circumstances. This action emphasizes the severity of the consequences of disobedience.

We now move into the next section which begins with an oracle against Jerusalem (5:5-17) in which YHWH explains the symbolism of the haircut and shave in 5:1-4.

EZEKIEL 1:1-3 – INTRODUCTION AND SUPERSCRIPTION

EZEKIEL’S VISION OF THE GLORY OF YAHWEH (1:4-28)

AND HE SAID TO ME’ – EZEKIEL’S CALL TO BE A PROPHET – 2:1-3:15

EZEKIEL’S WATCHMAN ROLE: A PROPHETIC CALL TO RESPONSIBILITY- 3:16-27

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EZEKIEL’S WATCHMAN ROLE: A PROPHETIC CALL TO RESPONSIBILITY- 3:16-27

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Introduction

Ezekiel 3:16 begins with a standard prophetic word formula (c. 50 times) that will become familiar as we progress through the book: ‘the word of the Lord came unto me saying.’ It next occurs at 6:1 which would suggest that that 3:16-5:17 is one unit. This unit consists of several addresses by YHWH to Ezekiel and also includes a couple of Ezekiel’s reactions/responses to YHWH’s words (3:16; 4:14).

3:16-21 The Watchman Parable

After a seven day period of stunned anticipation Ezekiel receives a message from the Lord informing him that he has been given the specific role of watchman to the house of Israel. The parable of Ezekiel as a watchman occurs in two chapters of the book (3:17-21 and 33:1-9) but falls into three parts:

Part 1 – Found only in chapter 33.

1 Again the word of the LORD came unto me, saying,
2 Son of man, speak to the children of thy people, and say unto them, When I bring the sword upon a land, if the people of the land take a man of their coasts, and set him for their watchman:
3 If when he seeth the sword come upon the land, he blow the trumpet, and warn the people;
4 Then whosoever heareth the sound of the trumpet, and taketh not warning; if the sword come, and take him away, his blood shall be upon his own head.
5 He heard the sound of the trumpet, and took not warning; his blood shall be upon him. But he that taketh warning shall deliver his soul.
6 But if the watchman see the sword come, and blow not the trumpet, and the people be not warned; if the sword come, and take any person from among them, he is taken away in his iniquity; but his blood will I require at the watchman’s hand. Ezekiel 33:1-6

Part 2 – Found in both chapter 3 and chapter 33

16 And it came to pass at the end of seven days, that the word of the LORD came unto me, saying,
17 Son of man, I have made thee a watchman unto the house of Israel: therefore hear the word at my mouth, and give them warning from me.
18 When I say unto the wicked, Thou shalt surely die; and thou givest him not warning, nor speakest to warn the wicked from his wicked way, to save his life; the same wicked man shall die in his iniquity; but his blood will I require at thine hand.
19 Yet if thou warn the wicked, and he turn not from his wickedness, nor from his wicked way, he shall die in his iniquity; but thou hast delivered thy soul.
20 Again, When a righteous man doth turn from his righteousness, and commit iniquity, and I lay a stumblingblock before him, he shall die: because thou hast not given him warning, he shall die in his sin, and his righteousness which he hath done shall not be remembered; but his blood will I require at thine hand.
21 Nevertheless if thou warn the righteous man, that the righteous sin not, and he doth not sin, he shall surely live, because he is warned; also thou hast delivered thy soul. Ezekiel 3:16-21 and also 33:7-9

PART 3 – Found only in chapter 3.

20 Again, When a righteous man doth turn from his righteousness, and commit iniquity, and I lay a stumblingblock before him, he shall die: because thou hast not given him warning, he shall die in his sin, and his righteousness which he hath done shall not be remembered; but his blood will I require at thine hand.
21 Nevertheless if thou warn the righteous man, that the righteous sin not, and he doth not sin, he shall surely live, because he is warned; also thou hast delivered thy soul. Ezekiel 3:20-21

In this article we shall only deal with material found in Ezekiel 3:16-21.

Speaking in the first person the Lord addresses Ezekiel not by name but as ‘mortal’ and makes him watchman for the house of Israel. In ancient times, a watchman patrolled the walls of a city (2 Sam 18:24-27; 2 Kgs 9:17-20) and was responsible for keeping guard and for alerting the citizens to approaching dangers. Similarly, Ezekiel is appointed by the Lord as a spiritual watchman for the ‘house of Israel.’ Whenever he hears a message from YHWH it is his responsibility to convey that message and warn the people about impending consequences (3:17).

The Weight of Prophetic Responsibility – Illustrating the Prophet’s Task as a Watchman and the Consequences of Silence

In vv.18-21 YHWH introduces the idea of prophetic responsibility and elaborates on the role of watchman by outlining various scenarios involving a word from the Lord (‘when I say’) and possible prophetic responses to it. It is notable that YHWH does not use military style language (Isa 21:6-8; Jer 6:17), which one might expect, when expanding upon the role of watchman but rather expresses himself in legal terms more appropriate to the courtroom. The language is that of a judge addressing ‘the wicked man’ (in the second person ‘you’) while pronouncing the death sentence upon him: ‘When I say unto the wicked, Thou shalt surely die’ (3:18).

Four cases are set out in two sets of two. The grammar is not quite parallel but the meaning is. In each of the two sets we have one example of the prophetic watchman not fulfilling his role and one example of him fulfilling that role, and the consequences of each.

Case 1 (3:18) The prophet is made aware that the death sentence has been passed but does not warn the wicked man. The consequences are two-fold: a) the wicked man will die in his sin. b) the prophet will be held responsible for the wicked man’s death, because he failed to warn him.

Case 2 (3:19) The prophet is made aware that the death sentence has been passed and does warn the wicked man, who does not turn from his sin. The consequences are two-fold: a) the wicked man will die in his sin. b) the life of the prophet will be preserved.

Case 3 (3:20) ‘The righteous man’ turns from his righteousness and commits iniquity and the prophet does not warn him. The consequences are two-fold: a) The man’s former righteousness will not be remembered so he will die in his sin. b) because he did not warn the man the prophet will be held responsible for his death.

Case 4 ((3:21) The prophet warns the righteous man not to sin and the righteous man does not sin. The consequences are two-fold: a) the righteous man will live. b) the prophet’s life is preserved.

In summary, Ezekiel 3:16-21 depicts the prophet’s role as a watchman, emphasizing the weighty responsibility of delivering God’s warnings and messages to the people. Ezekiel’s task as a watchman is to ensure that he communicates to the people exactly what he hears from YHWH. The warnings will be solemn. What Ezekiel will be announcing is a legal decision that has already been taken and will not be revoked.

3:22-27 EZEKIEL’S CONFINEMENT AND DUMBNESS

In 3:22-23 we have Ezekiel as narrator introducing a series of three messages from YHWH, all of which begin with the words: ‘And thou, o son of man’ (3:25; 4:1; 5:1). The first message (3:24b-27) reveals to him further information about the conduct of his ministry. The second (4:1-17) orders him to symbolically represent the siege of Jerusalem and in the third (5:1-17) he is told to symbolically represent the fate of the inhabitants after fall of the city.

A Valley Encounter: The Glory of YHWH Revisited – Ezekiel’s Solitude and the Renewal of Divine Encounter

Ezekiel records (vv.22-24) that he was told to leave the Israelites among whom he found himself and go out into the solitude of a valley, presumably near Tel-Abib (3:15). When he had complied with this instruction the glory of YHWH appeared to him just as it had in his inaugural vision by the river of Chebar (1:1-3:14).

Bound with Cords: The Symbolism of Confinement

Again (see 2:2) the spirit enters him and sets him on his feet, telling him that he is to go back to his house and remain shut up there. Using the ‘son of man’ formula the spirit proceeds to emphasize the strictness of this confinement using the imagery of being bound with cords. As a result Ezekiel will not be able to go out among the people, they will have to come to him (8:1; 14:1; 20:1; 33:30). Although the text says that ‘they’ will bind Ezekiel it is generally understood that the binding will be done by YHWH, especially in light of 4:8. It is not the action of the Israelites.

Silenced Tongue: Understanding the Impact of Muteness on the Prophet’s Role

In vv. 26-27 Ezekiel is informed that his tongue will cleave to the roof of his mouth with the result that he will be speechless except when YHWH commands him to speak. Even then he will only be able to say what YHWH wants him to say and must begin his messages with ‘Thus saith the Lord God.’ The purpose/result of Ezekiel’s dumbness is that he will not be ‘a reprover’ to rebellious Israel.’ What is meant by ‘one who chides,’ ‘one who rebukes’ (compare Prov 9:7; 24:25; 25:12; 28:23)?

Some suggest that the idea of a reprover here is a legal concept. To reprove may perhaps mean to conduct a legal case (Job 40:2), or to preside or arbitrate at a trial (Job 9:33 daysman) and thus ensure a fair hearing. Trials took place at the gate of a city, which is where the reprover would exercise his role (Isa 29:21; Amos 5:10). This view seems to fit well what we have said about vv.16b-21 where the role of the watchman is expressed in legal terms.

The legal dispute in view is therefore that between YHWH and Israel. Ezekiel is not permitted to become involved. He is confined to his house and cannot go out among the people or sit with the elders at the city gate. He cannot see what is going on and react to it but can only speak what he is told to say by YHWH. He is dumb and therefore cannot exercise a mediatorial role between YHWH and Israel. He cannot intercede for them because the trial is already over, No negotiation or dialogue is possible. Communication is only one way; from YHWH to Israel. The decision has been made and the verdict pronounced. Ezekiel’s role is to proclaim the coming judgement.

Ezekiel’s Silent Years

Three passages refer to the onset of Ezekiel’s dumbness and its removal (3:22-27; 24:25-27; 33:21-22). The chronology of the book of Ezekiel would indicate that the limitations of confinement and the state of silence imposed upon him by the Lord may have lasted from the time of his call (c. 593 BCE) for a period of about seven years; ending only the evening prior to Ezekiel hearing the news (from a refugee one year following the event i.e. 585 BCE) that his prophecies of judgment have been fulfilled by the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians (586 BCE).

21 And it came to pass in the twelfth year of our captivity, in the tenth month, in the fifth day of the month, that one that had escaped out of Jerusalem came unto me, saying, The city is smitten.
22 Now the hand of the LORD was upon me in the evening, before he that was escaped came; and had opened my mouth, until he came to me in the morning; and my mouth was opened, and I was no more dumb. Ezekiel 33:21-22

EZEKIEL 1:1-3 – INTRODUCTION AND SUPERSCRIPTION

EZEKIEL’S VISION OF THE GLORY OF YAHWEH (1:4-28)

‘AND HE SAID TO ME’ – EZEKIEL’S CALL TO BE A PROPHET – 2:1-3:15

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‘AND HE SAID TO ME’ – EZEKIEL’S CALL TO BE A PROPHET – 2:1-3:15

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EZEKIEL’S CALL TO BE A PROPHET – 2:1- 3:15

BACKGROUND

In chapter one Ezekiel has a vision of YHWH (Yahweh – the Lord) coming from the direction of the north in a storm cloud, borne along by a strange chariot composed of four living creatures and with wheels which travelled in all directions at once. Above the living creatures is a crystal dome upon which he sees YHWH in human form sitting upon a throne, surrounded by a brightness resembling a rainbow. Overcome by this sight of ‘the glory of YHWH’ Ezekiel falls upon his face and hears a voice speaking to him.

In 2:1- 3:15 Ezekiel reports the speech in which YHWH calls him to be a prophet, authorised to speak on YHWH’s behalf. The speech divides into five sections, all of which are introduced with the formula ‘and he said to me.’

2:1-2 ‘And he said to me‘- Ezekiel is commanded to stand.

Ezekiel receives a direct command from YHWH to stand on his feet; signifying a readiness to receive the message that the Lord is about to communicate to him. YHWH addresses him as ‘son of man’ (son of Adam; son of a human). ‘Son of’ denotes membership of a particular class; e.g. ‘prophet’s son’ in Amos 7:14. In Ezekiel this form of address is used only by YHWH and is a key phrase in the book. Referring to Ezekiel as ‘mortal’ or ‘human being’ emphasizes his weakness and insignificance in light of the glory and majesty of YHWH that he is witnessing in the vision.

When YHWH speaks to him Ezekiel is set upon his feet by the ‘spirit.’ This again emphasizes Ezekiel’s weakness, he can do nothing apart from the power of God. In the call narrative the spirit lifts and set him on his feet (2:2), a hand holds out the scroll (2:9) and the Lord feeds him the scroll (3:2). Ezekiel’s only action, if one might call it that, is to eat the scroll (3:3). The Spirit entering into Ezekiel symbolizes divine transformation and empowerment, preparing him for the task ahead. As a prophet he will have to rely totally upon the Lord.

2:3-10 ‘And he said to me‘ – Ezekiel is sent to rebellious Israel.

God commissions Ezekiel as a prophet to the rebellious ‘sons of Israel.’ Although Ezekiel’s ministry would be to the people from Judah who were with him in exile yet throughout the book he often addresses Israel as a whole (the other tribes had already been exiled for more than 120 years) and characterizes them as rebellious. This is a reminder that misfortune befalls them because they have failed YHWH, not because YHWH has failed them.

The fact of YHWH’s displeasure is driven home by use of the word ‘nation’ (gôyim), also used for the heathen, pagan Gentile nations around (Ex 9:24; 34:10; Ezek 5:6-8). God does not say here that they are his people, in fact, in 3:11 he just refers to them as Ezekiel’s people (‘thy people’).

‘They and their fathers have transgressed against me…’ (2:3). Israel’s rebellious attitude can be traced back a long way. It was a characteristic their ancestors and could thus be almost viewed as hereditary. It is to these impudent (hard of face, obstinate) and stiffhearted (hard hearted) people that YHWH is sending Ezekiel. He is to tell them ‘Thus saith the Lord God’ (2:4). This messenger formula is another key phrase in the book. The messages that Ezekiel delivers do not originate in his own mind but are directly from YHWH, delivered via Ezekiel acting as a conduit.

Since the people are rebellious they may refuse to listen to what Ezekiel says but whether or not they heed the message they ‘shall know that there hath been a prophet among them’ (2:5). That which Ezekiel predicts will come to pass.

Ezekiel is not to be afraid of these people who are characterized by harshness but is to be courageous in the face of opposition. The briers, thorns and scorpions (2:6) are usually viewed as describing the challenging and hostile environment in which Ezekiel will carry out his prophetic ministry (since the first two are plants it is likely that ‘scorpion’ also refers to a thorny plant, e.g. 1 Kgs 12:11). Ezekiel will be rejected and humiliated by the people. On the other hand, the idea may be that Ezekiel will be metaphorically surrounded by briers, thorns and scorpions, which will serve to protect him from the hostility of his fellow countrymen. Ezekiel is commanded to speak the Lord’s words boldly, regardless of whether the reaction is positive or negative (2:7).

In 2:8 Ezekiel is rather strangely exhorted not to be ‘rebellious like that rebellious house.’ Israel has been called ‘rebellious’ in vv. 5, 6 and 7 and now in v. 8 there is repetition of the word ‘rebellious.’ The focus is therefore on Israel’s rebelliousness; it is because of this that Ezekiel is being sent to them as a prophet. Ezekiel, however, is not to be like them, he is to open his mouth and eat whatever YHWH gives him. This command to eat is repeated in 3:1. Ezekiel at this stage has no idea what he is to eat.

In 2:9-10 Ezekiel sees a hand hold out a scroll which is then spread out before him so that he can glance at it. He notices that the writing covers both back and front of the scroll and that it contains ‘lamentations and mourning and woe.’ It would seem that the message written on it is one of judgement.

3:1-3 ‘And he said to me‘ - Ezekiel is commanded to eat the scroll.

YHWH repeats the command to Ezekiel to eat whatever he finds; that turns out to be the scroll, an inedible object. Fortunately for Ezekiel, he did not have to eat a physical scroll, this was happening in his trance-like state. Even at this point Ezekiel does not protest, in fact, he does not speak at all throughout the entire inaugural vision. Exercising unconditional obedience, he receives and consumes the scroll, symbolizing the word of God. He thus fills his ‘belly’ and ‘bowels’ (his innermost being) with it. The act of eating is also symbolic; it emphasizes the need for Ezekiel to fully digest, assimilate and comprehend YHWH’s message before sharing it with others.

Ezekiel reports that the scroll tastes as sweet as honey. The prophet Jeremiah (15:16) also reported that (metaphorically) feeding upon God’s word brought him joy: ‘Thy words were found, and I did eat them; and thy word was unto me the joy and rejoicing of mine heart: for I am called by thy name, O LORD God of hosts.’ (See also Psa 19:10)

3:4-9 ‘And he said to me‘ - Ezekiel is formally commissioned as YHWH’s prophet to Israel.

Ezekiel is now commissioned to go and deliver God’s words to the house (family) of Israel. He is not to speak his own thoughts but to convey the divine message faithfully and accurately. His Israelite audience speaks the same language as him so communication ought to be fairly easy. The message, however, will meet with resistance and rejection. This is emphasized with a comparison. Were YHWH to send Ezekiel to many foreign nations which speak an unintelligible language (like the Babylonian overlords/invaders) they would readily receive the message, in contrast to rebellious Israel, who will reject it.

Unlike the other prophets Ezekiel is not sent with a message of hope that would enable Israel to repent and avoid judgement. He just has to deliver God’s words verbatim in spite of the fact that there will be no response. YHWH already knows (3:7) that the message will be rejected. Israel does not heed YHWH so they certainly will not heed Ezekiel. The success of Ezekiel’s ministry will not be measured by results but by his obedience in proclaiming what YHWH tells him to say.

Verses 8 and 9 return to the thought of Israel’s hardness already mentioned in 2:4. Israel is tough but YHWH will make Ezekiel equally tough. Verse 8 says he will be tough-browed; i.e. brazen (see Jer 3:3). Similarly in v. 9 Ezekiel’s brow will be like an adamant (unbreakable material) harder than flint; i.e. diamond (see Jer 17:1). Again Ezekiel is told not to be afraid and again Israel is described as a ‘rebellious house.’

3:10-11 ‘And he said to me‘ - Ezekiel is commanded to go to his fellow exiles

These verses sum up Ezekiel’s task. When Ezekiel hears all the words that the Lord will speak to him he is to lay them to heart and go and announce them to the exiles (‘them of the captivity’). All the other prophets of YHWH lived in the land of Israel and prophesied to the people there but Ezekiel is commissioned to directly address his fellow exiles; both he and they have been deported along with King Jehoiachin c. 597 BCE (1:2) and are now on foreign soil, far from the land of Israel. The message he has for them does not originate with him but comes from the Lord: ‘Thus saith the Lord God.’

3:12-15 Ezekiel describes his departure from YHWH’s presence and his arrival at Tel-Abib.

Ezekiel describes how that, still in his prophetic trance and experiencing the vision of God, the wind (or the Spirit of God) metaphorically (not physically, see 8:3; 11:1, 24) levitates and teleports him to Tel-Abib. That Ezekiel was still experiencing the vision is clear from his report that he heard the great rumbling sound (of an earthquake) and that the noise he heard was from the wings of the living creatures, the wheels, and the overall movement associated with the divine presence (3:13). The great rumbling sound which he hears symbolises the powerful presence of God. The declaration, “Blessed be the glory of the Lord from its place,” expresses praise for God’s majestic and glorious presence. Possibly it was sung by the cherubim.

Ezekiel describes his state of mind while he is carried away as ‘bitter.’ At what we are not told. He may have been bitter at the adamance of Israel or bitter because he has been called to be God’s spokesman to the people, with no likelihood of them paying attention to his message. In spite of his internal struggles he feels the strength of the Lord’s hand upon him, providing divine empowerment for his prophetic mission, . Jeremiah (Jer 15:17) seems to have have had a similar melancholy reaction to the grievous message he would announce.

Back in Tel-Abib (3:15) with the exiles Ezekiel says that he ‘sat where they sat.’ Sitting among them is a demonstration of Ezekiel’s identification with the people to whom he is sent, sharing in their experiences and challenges. Apparently he is so shocked and overwhelmed by the vision that he sits in stunned silence for seven days.

SUMMATION

In this section of the call narrative (2:1-3:15), Ezekiel receives a divine commission and is made aware of the difficulty of the task ahead. However, he receives assurance of God’s protection and empowerment. The stage is now set for Ezekiel’s prophetic ministry to the rebellious house of Israel.

EZEKIEL 1:1-3 – INTRODUCTION AND SUPERSCRIPTION

EZEKIEL’S VISION OF THE GLORY OF YAHWEH (1:4-28)

EZEKIEL’S WATCHMAN ROLE: A PROPHETIC CALL TO RESPONSIBILITY- 3:16-27

Posted in Exposition

The Half-Shekel Ransom: Exodus 30:11-16

Posted on by writtenexposition

Introduction

Within the pages of Exodus, nestled among the divine instructions for the construction of the tabernacle, we come across a peculiar commandment concerning the census tax, or atonement money. 

This command lies in a block of chapters (25-31) in which the Lord directly addresses Moses and communicates the blueprint of the Tabernacle in a series of seven speeches. Each speech begins with the words: ‘and the Lord spoke unto Moses’ (25:1; 30:11; 30:17; 31:1; 31:12; 31:16; 31:18). Chapters 25-31 are prescriptive; that is, they lay down a set of instructions.

At the end of the book of Exodus there is another block of chapters (35-40) which are descriptive. They repeat more or less the same details contained in the prescriptive chapters. This is done in order to emphasize the meticulous adherence of the Israelites to the divine instructions for the construction of the Tabernacle; delivered to Moses on Mount Sinai. This latter descriptive section is characterized by the words: ‘as the Lord commanded Moses’ (39:1, 5, 7, 21, 26, 29, 31; 40:19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 29, 32).

Sandwiched between the prescriptive section (25-31) and the descriptive section (35-40) is the account of Israel’s sin in worshipping the Golden Calf (32-34).

In Exodus 30, strangely placed between the instructions concerning the incense altar and the brass laver (basin), is the command to conduct a census.

Divine Directive

30:11: And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,

This discourse marker introduces the instructions that follow and is a reminder of divine interest and guidance in human affairs.

Preventing Plague

30:12: When thou takest the sum of the children of Israel after their number, then shall they give every man a ransom for his soul unto the LORD, when thou numberest them; that there be no plague among them, when thou numberest them.

Moses (‘thou’ is singular) receives a command to take a census ; lit ‘when you lift up the head of the sons of Israel.’ Notice the emphasis on the idea of numbering, occurring four times in this verse. To ensure protection from plague (lit. ‘blow’) each eligible male counted was to pay a ransom for his life at the time of registration. Many commentators explain away the fear of plague (plague and census are also linked in 2 Sam 24) as a taboo or superstition, common among peoples in the ancient world, that a deity might easily become angry at a time of census. The reason is not explained here but I suspect there is much more to it than that.

Perhaps expiation or appeasement for the recent apostasy was necessary at the time of this census; expressed as a ‘ransom’ (a price paid in exchange for release) or as the related word ‘atonement’ (30:15-16). Somehow it seems significant that the two blocks of chapters about the Tabernacle referred to in the introduction above are connected by the story of the Golden Calf. This incident involving the worship of a representation of deity as a golden bull (32:8) violated the covenant almost as soon as it was ratified (20:3), almost scuppered the recently established relationship between the Lord and his people and nearly derailed the whole tabernacle project. The Lord was angry and would have destroyed the people but for three intercessions by Moses (32:11-14; 32:31-33:3; 33:12-17). Intercession was followed by repentance, forgiveness, covenant renewal and eventually the Lord’s presence among the people but there would still be punishment for the sin. Exactly what it would be and when it would fall was not revealed (32:34).

Half a Shekel

30:13:This they shall give, every one that passeth among them that are numbered, half a shekel after the shekel of the sanctuary: (a shekel is twenty gerahs:) an half shekel shall be the offering of the LORD.

Here, the prescribed amount of the ransom is revealed – half a shekel, according to the sanctuary shekel. It is thought that the sacred or holy shekel may have been heavier than a normal shekel and probably weighed about 12 grams. The shekel was not a coin but a unit of weight. This ransom payment was therefore about 6 grams in weight. The sanctuary shekel is further defined as being equivalent to twenty gerahs – another unit of weight that is thought to be Babylonian. We are not told here what was to be weighed out but from Exodus 38:25-26 we learn that the ransom was paid in silver. The total amount collected was 100 talents plus 1775 shekels. There were 3000 shekels in a talent so the total number of shekels was 301775. This represented a half-shekel per head given by 603550 men. At approximately 6 grams per half shekel the weight of silver given was just under 4 tonnes.

30:14: Every one that passeth among them that are numbered, from twenty years old and above, shall give an offering unto the LORD.

The census tax is required from all males who are twenty years old and above and this verse emphasizes that this offering is to the Lord. An offering was something that was lifted up in an act of dedication, elevated, i.e. a gift. This verse repeats ‘every one that passeth among them that are numbered’ from v.13. ‘Every one’ could refer to either male or female but in the Numbers 1 census those twenty years and above were males old enough to serve as soldiers. Perhaps we have here a practical hint as to how the census might be taken. Each man must have passed from one designated area to another, handing over a half-shekel at the point of registration.

Equal Offering, Equal Atonement

30:15:The rich shall not give more, and the poor shall not give less than half a shekel, when they give an offering unto the LORD, to make an atonement for your souls.

Regardless of one’s wealth, everyone is to give the same amount, emphasizing equality in the offering. The amount payable was not calculated on the basis of inheritance or income but was a poll tax, a fixed sum. Note the comparisons: ‘rich’ and ‘poor’, ‘more than’ and ‘less than.’ The purpose of the offering is to make atonement (‘covering over’ i.e. appeasement) for their lives.

Use of the atonement money

30:16: And thou shalt take the atonement money of the children of Israel, and shalt appoint it for the service of the tabernacle of the congregation; that it may be a memorial unto the children of Israel before the LORD, to make an atonement for your souls.

Moses was to take ‘the silver of coverings-over (plural)’ and use it for the service of the Tabernacle. In this context, as Ex 38:27-28 makes clear, ‘service’ refers to the construction of the Tabernacle, not its ongoing running costs. There we learn that the silver from this census was used to cast the bases of the sanctuary and the veil and to plate the tops of the pillars and make hooks for the pillars.

As part of the Tabernacle this silver becomes a tangible memorial, a constant remembrance either ‘of the people’ of Israel in the presence of the Lord, or a reminder ‘to the people’ that they belong to the Lord.

Frequency

In Exodus 30 the half-shekel ransom is presented as a one-time obligation on the part of the people of Israel. In later times, however, this command was used by the kings (2 Kgs 12:5-17; 2 Chron 24:4-14) and also by the Pharisees during the Second Temple period as the basis for imposing an annual temple tax upon the Jewish people (Mt 17:24).

Commentators, on the basis of the stated figures, tend to view this census in Exodus 30:11-16; 38:25-28 as the same one recorded in Numbers chapter 1. There is an argument for, but also one against, them being one and the same:

For: The figures do match. In Exodus 38:25-26 the weight of silver collected equalled a half shekel from 603550 men. In the Numbers 1 census the figures for fighting men from each of the Israelite tribes added up to 603550 (Num 1:46).

Against: The dates do not match. According to Num 1:1-2 the command from the Lord to conduct the Numbers 1 census came on day 1, month 2, year 2 after the exodus from Egypt. According to Ex 38:27-28 the silver from the Exodus 30 census was used in the construction of the Tabernacle. The Tabernacle, however, was erected on day 1, month 1, year 2 after the exodus (Ex 40:17). The Tabernacle had already been completed before the census of Numbers 1 took place.

Lessons for today

Although caution is advisable when dealing with texts which are set in the ancient world far removed from us and from our way of thinking nevertheless it is possible to extrapolate some principles from the half-shekel ransom which could be applied in gospel preaching today.

  • v.12 All are guilty Romans 3:23
  • v.12 ‘to the Lord.’ It is God who has been offended and must be appeased.
  • v.12 Refusal resulted in exclusion from the sanctuary and exposure to coming judgement.
  • v.13 The ransom price is set by God – a specific amount.
  • v.14 There are no exemptions. All who have reached a certain age are accountable.
  • v.14 Everyone who brings the ransom price is counted (Jn 10:14).
  • v.15 The price is the same for every person, all souls are of equal value in the eyes of God.
  • v.15 The ransom applies to all classes alike. Rank and possessions make no difference.
  • v.15 The ransom price is within the reach of all.
  • v.15 The ransom price is sufficient (Heb 10:14). Nothing can be added to it (nor can it be diminished).
  • v.16 The ransom serves as a memorial before the Lord.

The Septuagint (Greek Old Testament, LXX) translates the Hebrew word kōp̱er (ransom) in Ex 30:12 as lútron. This word occurs twice in the Greek New Testament (Mt 20:28; Mk 10:45), in each instance referring to the Lord Jesus Christ.

Posted in General

Entering Uncharted Territory: Lessons from Joshua for the Year Ahead

Posted on by writtenexposition

READING: Joshua 3:1-7 (NKJV)

1 Then Joshua rose early in the morning; and they set out from Acacia Grove and came to the Jordan, he and all the children of Israel, and lodged there before they crossed over. 2 So it was, after three days, that the officers went through the camp; 3 and they commanded the people, saying, “When you see the ark of the covenant of the LORD your God, and the priests, the Levites, bearing it, then you shall set out from your place and go after it. 4 Yet there shall be a space between you and it, about two thousand cubits by measure. Do not come near it, that you may know the way by which you must go, for you have not passed this way before.”
5 And Joshua said to the people, “Sanctify yourselves, for tomorrow the LORD will do wonders among you.” 6 Then Joshua spoke to the priests, saying, “Take up the ark of the covenant and cross over before the people.” So they took up the ark of the covenant and went before the people.
7 And the LORD said to Joshua, “This day I will begin to exalt you in the sight of all Israel, that they may know that, as I was with Moses, so I will be with you.

As we stand on the precipice of a new year, the words from Joshua 3:4 resonate deeply: ‘you have not passed this way before.’ The closing days of 2023 prompt reflection on a year filled with challenges and sorrows for many. Now, with 2024 about to unfold before us, we find ourselves at the threshold of uncharted territory, much like the Israelites preparing to enter the Promised Land.

In Joshua chapter 3, the Israelites, after forty years in the wilderness, were about to cross the River Jordan. This significant crossing marked a transition from the familiar to the unknown, mirroring our own journey into the coming year. Here are some insights from Joshua 3:1-7 that can guide us as we step into the uncharted terrain of 2024:

Relying on God’s Presence

In verse 3, the Israelites are instructed to follow the Ark of the Covenant, representing God’s presence (Exodus 25:22a). To navigate the challenges of the unknown, they must keep their eyes fixed on the Ark. Similarly, in 2024, we need to rely on God’s presence, avoiding the temptation to blindly follow the crowd. Fixing our gaze on the Lord and following where he leads will guide us through unfamiliar situations.

Relying on God’s Power

Joshua’s call to the people to sanctify themselves in verse 5 precedes a promise of wonders from the Lord. The Israelites faced a daunting obstacle – the flooded Jordan River (v.15). Yet, their obedience activated God’s power, parting the waters for their safe passage. As we enter 2024, this reminds us to rely on God’s power to overcome obstacles that may seem insurmountable. Obedient faith can unleash divine wonders in the midst of fear and uncertainty.

Relying on God’s Promise

God’s reassurance to Joshua in verse 7 echoes through time: ‘As I was with Moses, so I will be with you.’ Just as God kept His promises to the saints of old, he remains faithful today. In the unknown terrain of 2024, we can rely on God’s promises. His enduring presence, power, and faithfulness will carry us through whatever challenges and opportunities lie ahead.

As we embark on the uncharted journey of 2024, let us heed the lessons from Joshua 3:1-7. Embrace God’s presence, trust in his power, and hold fast to his promises. The unfamiliarity of the path ahead is an invitation to step out in faith, for, as Joshua 3:4 reminds us, ‘you have not passed this way before.’ Throughout the year ahead may we be guided by God’s grace and marked by a steadfast reliance on him. Happy New Year!

Posted in Exposition

GUARDIANS OF EDEN: THE MYSTERY OF THE CHERUBIM – Genesis 3:24

Posted on by writtenexposition

Introduction: Genesis as a Fundamental Pillar of Biblical Insight

Since it occupies first place in the canon of scripture, it almost goes without saying that a grasp of the book of Genesis is necessary for a proper understanding of the rest of the Bible. It is:

– a book of revelation – because the information in it has been revealed by God via transmission through Moses. Its contents are therefore fact and not fiction.

– a book of introduction (as its name indicates) – because it records how things began. Genesis mentions the beginning of such things as the universe, human beings, marriage, murder, music, agriculture, languages and the nations.

The book falls naturally into two parts: primaeval history and patriarchal history. Chapters 1-11 record four key events of global significance: The Creation, The Fall, The Flood and The Babel Crisis. The second part, chapters 12-50, concentrates on the life- stories of four key characters: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph. Also within the book the family trees of ten significant individuals are given. Their records are introduced with the words ‘these are the generations of’:

Adam – 5:1; Noah – 6:9; Shem – 11:10 (10:1, 22); Ham – 10:1 (10:6); Japheth – 10:1 (10:2); Terah – 11:27; Ishmael – 25:12; Isaac – 25:19; Esau – 36:1l; Jacob – 37:2.

Background: Genesis 1-2 and the Duality of Creation Accounts

Genesis 1:1-2:3 records what is often referred to as the first account of creation. This section divides into three main episodes. The first two episodes together occupy six days, the third one day, the seventh. They are:

  • Gen 1:1-13 The creation of the inanimate world
  • Gen 1:14-31 The creation of living creatures; these occupy three spheres: sea, air and land.
  • Gen 2:1-3 God’s rest after his creative activity.

Chapter 2:4 begins what many scholars term the second account of creation. The reason for the idea that there are two accounts of creation is that each passage emphasizes a different name for God. Within Genesis 1:1-2:3 the name Elohim (trans. ‘God’) is used some thirty-five times. At the beginning of chapter two, however, there is a noticeable shift. In the second section YHWH Elohim (trans. ‘the Lord God’) is used, occurring twenty times within 2:4-3:24 . Whilst fully recognising this fact I think it unlikely that there are two accounts of creation. Chapter two simply continues with additional details of the creation of humanity on the sixth day; in other words, it is an expansion of 1:26-30. Genesis chapter two (along with chapter three) supplements chapter one.

The Paradise Narrative: Genesis Chapters 2 and 3

Genesis 2

Gen 2-4-7 – This section revisits the creation of man, emphasizing that Adam was created by God from the dust of the ground and that God breathed life into him.

Gen 2:8-14 – God plants a garden paradise called Eden into which he sets man. The garden is described as beautiful and abundant. It is watered by a river that flows through it; dividing into four streams. In the middle of the garden stand the tree of life and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil.

Gen 2: 15-17 – God gives Adam responsibility for tending the garden (2:15) and in 2:16-17 he personally addresses Adam instructing him not to eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. To do so will result in death.

Gen 2:18-25 – God declares that it is not good for man to be alone. God creates animals which are brought to Adam and named by him but no animal is suitable as a companion for Adam. God therefore creates woman (Eve) from one of Adam’s ribs. Adam recognises Eve as bone of his bone and flesh of his flesh.

Gen 2:24-25 – The chapter concludes with a statement about marriage. It declares that a man shall leave his parents, cleave to his wife, and the two shall become one flesh. The final verse notes that the Adam and Eve are naked but not ashamed.

Genesis 3

This chapter describes the events surrounding what has become known as the Fall of Man.

Gen 3:1 – The cunning serpent engages in conversation with the woman and questions God’s instruction not to eat of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil.

Gen 3:2-3 – Eve accepts the serpent’s insinuation (v.1) that God was being restrictive rather than generous and in her response to the serpent she both subtracts from God’s word (she omits the word ‘freely’) and adds to it (‘we cannot touch it’). You will recall that Revelation 22:18-19 contains prohibitions against adding to or taking away from the word of God.

Gen 3:4-5 The serpent (vv. 4-5) dismisses as untrue God’s warning that eating of the forbidden fruit would result in death and says that God has told the humans that in order to restrict their development. God does not want them to ‘know good and evil’. This expression seems to mean ‘have wisdom’ or ‘have the ability to understand’, ‘weigh up and discriminate’; for example: see Dt 1:39; 2 Sam 19:35; Isa 7:15-16 and Solomon’s prayer for understanding: Give therefore thy servant an understanding heart to judge thy people, that I may discern between good and bad: for who is able to judge this thy so great a people? 1 Kings 3:9

Gen 3:6 – The fall of humanity. Eve takes the fruit and eats it, then gives it to her husband, Adam, who also eats it.

Gen 3:7-19 These verses outline the results of disobedience. The man and the woman become aware of their nakedness and shame. They therefore sew fig leaves to cover themselves, and hide from God. God confronts them, and pronounces specific consequences that each party (the serpent, the woman, and the man) must face for their actions.

Gen 3:20-24 – In v.20 Adam names his wife Eve, meaning ‘living,’ signifying her role as the mother of all living. In v.21 God provides leather clothes for Adam and Eve before expelling them for the Garden of Eden in order to prevent them from eating from the tree of life and living forever in their fallen state. The entrance to the garden is blocked by cherubim and a flaming sword.

Unveiling Controversies and Posing Inquiries

Over the centuries Genesis 2 and 3 have been two of the most controversial and most discussed chapters of the Bible. A wide spectrum of opinion has been held and a variety of views put forward. Many believe that the events of Genesis 3 literally and physically happened as described, others maintain that the episode in Eden is myth or an allegory to explain sin and suffering, a few express an extreme view that the serpent is actually the hero of the story (since it ‘correctly’ predicted that the humans would not literally die the day they ate the forbidden fruit).

The Paradise Narrative raises many questions in the mind of the reader. These include:

  • How does one account for a talking animal (serpent)?
  • Where was Adam when Eve was having a conversation with the serpent?
  • Had Adam informed Eve about the prohibition? It had been given before she was created (2:16-17, 22).
  • Why did Adam not refuse to eat the fruit?
  • Why is no explanation given for the serpent wishing to bring about the catastrophe of the fall?
  • Why is there no further discussion of this episode in the Old Testament?
  • What does the passage mean by ‘life?’
  • What does the passage mean by ‘death?’
  • What does the passage mean by ‘day’ (2:17; 3:5)?
  • Are cherubim real or imaginary creatures?

The biblical passage does not address these questions.

Regardless of whatever view is held on the literalness or otherwise of the paradise story no-one can deny that, insofar as the biblical narrative is concerned, it marks a turning point in human history. The introduction of sin into the world disturbed the close relationship between God and human beings, disrupted the harmony of creation and introduced mortality, conflict, and suffering. The paradise narrative advances themes of good and evil, of original sin, human nature, free will, responsibility, separation from God and the hope of redemption. The consequences of the choice made by Adam and Eve and its impact on collective and individual destiny are subjects which everyone should ponder.

These themes are explored as the biblical revelation progresses but admittedly I find it strange that the fall of man does not feature in the rest of the Old Testament scriptures – with the possible exception of the following verses:

Job 31:33 (If I covered my transgressions as Adam, by hiding mine iniquity in my bosom),

Psa 51:5 (Behold, I was shapen in iniquity; and in sin did my mother conceive me.)

Isa 43:27 (Thy first father hath sinned, and thy teachers have transgressed against me.)

Hos 6:7 (But they like men have transgressed the covenant: there have they dealt treacherously against me.) The word translated ‘men’ is ’āḏām, leading some to suppose an Adam covenant.

The paradise narrative is referred to in the following New Testament passages, most of which are in the writings of the apostle Paul.

  • John 8:44 The devil is the father of lying. He told Eve the first recorded lie ‘in the beginning’.
  • Rom 5:12-21- Death through a literal Adam, the federal head of humanity.
  • Rom 8:18-23 – Creation subjected to futility.
  • 1 Cor 11 – Headship applied to corporate worship. Paul’s argument is based on the creation order.
  • 1 Cor 14:34 Women/wives to keep silence in the church. Paul refers to the Old Testament statement that a woman ought to be to be submissive (Gen 3:16).2 Cor
  • 2 Cor 11:3 Paul refers to the deception of Eve by the serpent.
  • 1 Tim 2:13-14 Paul’s teaching regarding women in the church is based on the order of creation.

The Cherubim: Guardians Beyond the Boundaries of Eden

So he drove out the man; and he placed at the east of the garden of Eden Cherubims, and a flaming sword which turned every way, to keep the way of the tree of life. Genesis 3:24

In Genesis 3:24 we have the first appearance of cherubim. After the fall they are positioned at the east side of the Garden of Eden, along with the revolving flaming sword, to guard the path to the Tree of Life. It would seem that they are stationed there as boundary markers to prevent Adam and Eve, now expelled from the Garden, from returning and consuming the fruit, which would potentially grant them immortality in a state of sin. It is clear from the verse that their function was negative rather than positive. They were not there to point the way back to the Garden of Eden and the Tree of Life but to bar access to them.

The verse tells us hardly anything about these creatures but would indicate that they are animate beings whose primary function is to act as guardians. It does not specify the number of cherubim nor does it say what form they took or give a description of their appearance. However, their activity at the close of the story of the fall serves as a salutary reminder of the fateful consequences of human sin and disobedience.

Posted in General

EXPLORING THE ENIGMATIC CHERUBIM IN THE BIBLICAL NARRATIVE

Posted on by writtenexposition

INTRODUCTION

It seems that Cherubim are seldom mentioned in church services these days although occasionally the hymn ‘Holy, Holy, Holy’ by Reginald Heber (cherubim and seraphim, falling down before Thee), or, the Christmas carol ‘In The Bleak Midwinter’ by Christina Rossetti, (Angels and Archangels, May have gathered there, Cherubim and seraphim, Thronged the air) might be sung.

These mysterious and awe-inspiring celestial creatures, however, have fascinated theologians, scholars, and Christian believers for centuries. ‘Cherub’ (singular) or ‘cherubim’ (plural) occur more than ninety times in the Bible. They are mentioned early in Genesis and also in the books of Exodus, Numbers, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, the Psalms and Ezekiel. They appear in connection with the Garden of Eden, the Ark of the Covenant, the Tabernacle and Solomon’s Temple. They are referred to a couple of times in the New Testament; by name in the epistle to the Hebrews and by implication in the Revelation.

The Bible does not provide us with a clear and concise description of the cherubim but they are generally depicted as hybrid winged creatures with multiple faces and multiple bodies/body parts. Nor does the Bible explain their exact roles and functions. Likely there was no need to explain these things to the first readers of the biblical books, to whom they would already have been familiar.

PSEUDO-DIONYSIUS THE AREOPAGITE

In the Christian era possibly one of the earliest, and certainly the most influential, student of angelology was Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. Little is known about this scholar who wrote pseudonymously using the name of of Dionysius the Areopagite, a convert of the Apostle Paul following his sermon on the Areopagus (Mars Hill) in Athens (Acts 17:34). Pseudo-Dionysius was probably born in the late fifth or early sixth century C.E. Some speculate that this author might have been a Syrian monk, or that perhaps he was Peter the Iberian (c. 417-491 C.E.), a Christian theologian and Neoplatonist. That Pseudo-Dionysius was a Christian is not even certain but he was definitely a Neoplatonist philosopher.

The earliest reference to the writings (Corpus Areopagitum) of Dionysius the Areopagite is by Severus of Antioch in records of a theological conference held in 532 C.E. Around that same time John of Scythopolis wrote a commentary on Pseudo-Dionysius’ works. As well as ten letters Dionysius’ writings include treatises on ‘The Divine Nature’, ‘The Mystical Theology’, ‘The Celestial Hierarchy’, and the ‘Ecclesiastical Hierarchy’.

As the blurb to Wear and Dillon’s book ‘Dionysius The Areopagite And The Neoplatonist Tradition’ explains:

Dionysius manipulates a Platonic metaphysics to describe a hierarchical universe: as with the Hellenic Platonists, he arranges the celestial and material cosmos into a series of triadic strata. These strata emanate from one unified being and contain beings that range from superior to inferior, depending on their proximity to God. Not only do all things in the hierarchy participate in God, but also all things are inter-connected, so that the lower hierarchies fully participate in the higher ones. This metaphysics lends itself to a sacramental system similar to that of the Hellenic ritual, theurgy. Theurgy allows humans to reach the divine by examining the divine as it exists in creation.

For the topic of Cherubim the treatise which is of interest is that on celestial hierarchy. The concept of ‘hierarchy’ is an important and influential contribution by Dionysius to the discussion about God, about how he has ordered his creation, how extends himself in love to his creation and how his creation reaches back to, and becomes one, with him. Dionysius proposed that the means by which this is accomplished is that of hierarchy. The hierarchy is one of spiritual enlightenment, with those higher up (superior) best able to receive the divine light. Each order in the hierarchy functions as a messenger for the one above it and out of love passes the divine light down through the ranks, diluted according to the ability of each to receive it. Using categories from the Bible (Gen. 3:24; Isa. 6:2; Rom. 8:38; Eph. 1:21; Col. 1:16 ) Pseudo-Dionysius proposed a hierarchy of angels consisting of three ranks of three orders:

First rank (highest): SERAPHIM, CHERUBIM, THRONES

Second rank (middle): DOMINIONS, POWERS, AUTHORITIES

Third rank (lower): PRINCIPALITIES, ARCHANGELS, ANGELS

Pseudo-Dionysius was the first to systematise the hierarchy of immortal, inherently good, spiritual energies that control the celestial spheres and carry out the divine will. His views helped spark an interest in the study of the doctrine of angels (angelology) that has continued through the centuries and into modern times (for example; ‘Catechesis on the Angels’ by Pope John Paul II and ‘Angels: God’s Secret Agents’ by Billy Graham). Even today the ‘Celestial Hierarchy’ usually forms the basis of serious discussion on the ranking of the ‘choirs’ (categories) of angels.

EXPLORING THE ENIGMATIC CHERUBIM IN THE BIBLICAL NARRATIVE

I intend to embark on a journey to understand something of the multifaceted nature of cherubim in the biblical narrative and propose delving into their appearances in the sacred texts to discover what, if anything, is said or implied about their roles, functions and symbolism.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Coakley, S. and Stang, C.M. (2011). Re-thinking Dionysius the Areopagite. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.

Graham, B. (2011). Angels: God’s Secret Agents, Thomas Nelson.

Ivanović, F. (2011). Dionysius the Areopagite between Orthodoxy and Heresy. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

Wear, S. K. and Dillon, J. (2013). Dionysius the Areopagite and the Neoplatonist Tradition. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.

WEBSITES

esoteric.msu.edu. (2000) Dionysius the Areopagite: Celestial Hierarchy. [online] Available at: https://esoteric.msu.edu/VolumeII/CelestialHierarchy.html [Accessed 13 Oct. 2023].

Posted in Exposition

PSALM 61

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(To the chief Musician upon Neginah, A Psalm of David.)

1. Hear my cry, O God; attend unto my prayer.

2. From the end of the earth will I cry unto thee, when my heart is overwhelmed: lead me to the rock that is higher than I.

3. For thou hast been a shelter for me, and a strong tower from the enemy.

4. I will abide in thy tabernacle for ever: I will trust in the covert of thy wings. Selah.

5. For thou, O God, hast heard my vows: thou hast given me the heritage of those that fear thy name.

6. Thou wilt prolong the king’s life: and his years as many generations.

7. He shall abide before God for ever: O prepare mercy and truth, which may preserve him.

8. So will I sing praise unto thy name for ever, that I may daily perform my vows.

INTRODUCTION

The Book of Psalms is possibly the best-loved book in the Bible. It stands as a testament to prayer, worship, praise, thanksgiving, adoration, and unwavering confidence in the Lord. It is a spiritual repository, encapsulating the full spectrum of human experience. Remarkably, despite its antiquity, it resonates with the same emotions, conflicts, and apprehensions that pervade contemporary life. It candidly articulates doubts, fears, grief, and anxieties, as well as assurance, trust, and hope.

It may be helpful to bear the following in mind when perusing the Psalms:

  1. Poetic Essence: The Psalms are steeped in the art of Hebrew poetry, this may not be obvious in English translations.
  2. Lyrical Tradition: Originally intended for musical accompaniment, the Psalms are compositions which were designed to be sung.
  3. Devotional Utility: These verses are ideally suited for both public and private acts of worship.
  4. Historical Anchorage: The Psalms derive their authenticity from genuine life experiences and historical events, notably episodes from the life of King David, particularly when on the run from King Saul and later, his own son Absalom.
  5. Prophetic Dimensions: It is said that the New Testament features two hundred and nineteen quotations from the Old Testament, of which one hundred and sixteen are drawn from the Book of Psalms. Many of these citations are prophecies, foreshadowing the advent of the Lord Jesus Christ.
  6. Doctrinal Significance: The Psalms provide profound insights into the character of God. They impart theological teachings concerning the nature, attributes, mercies, and works of God.

The Book of Psalms thus serves a dual purpose. It imparts doctrinal truths about God and the Lord Jesus Christ while also furnishing guidance to us for daily living as believers This is consistent with the overarching intent of the Old Testament scriptures which is expressed by the Apostle Paul in Romans 15:4: “For whatsoever things were written aforetime were written for our learning, that we through patience and comfort of the scriptures might have hope.”

Historically, the Book of Psalms has been embraced by Christians through the centuries, although its origins were as Israel’s hymnal. The Psalms were originally intended to be sung – they are essentially poems set to music – but modern Christianity has mostly departed from this practice. The Psalms, however, remain an enduring source of spiritual contemplation and devotional help.

In this post I hope to shed some light on the title of this Psalm, offer a concise summary of its contents, and conclude with a brief reflection on its pivotal statement.

THE TITLE AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF PSALM 61

Among the 150 Psalms, more than a hundred bear an inscript (heading or caption) containing specific details about the Psalm, along with directions for musicians regarding the tune or musical accompaniment. These titles, likely added sometime after the collection of the Psalms, date back to ancient times. Some words in these titles are so old that their meanings were lost even before the time of Christ, leaving rabbis to speculate about their significance. One such enigmatic word appears in the title of Psalm 61, and that word is “Neginah.”

The title of Psalm 61 reads: “To the chief musician upon Neginah, A Psalm of David.”

“Neginah” (singular) appears only here, while some other Psalms (4, 6, 54, 55, 67, 71) feature the plural form, “Neginoth,” in their headings. The term “Neginoth” can denote either “music” or “song” (as seen in Job 30:9, Psalms 69:12, Lamentations 3:14, and Lamentations 5:14) or even refer to a stringed instrument, as observed in Habakkuk 3:19:

“The LORD God is my strength, and he will make my feet like hinds’ feet, and he will make me to walk upon mine high places. To the chief singer on my stringed instruments (neginoth).”

Scholars debate whether “Neginah” in the title of Psalm 61 refers to a specific tune or melody or perhaps an ancient stringed instrument, details of which have faded into history. Other Psalms incorporate musical instruments in their titles, such as:

  • “Alamoth” in Psalm 46, thought to be a high-pitched harp.
  • “Gittith” in Psalms 8, 81, and 84, something akin to a guitar.
  • “Mahalath” in Psalms 5 and 88, indicating flutes.
  • “Sheminith” in Psalms 6, 12, and 1 Chronicles 15:21, referring to lyres or harps.

Notably, “A Psalm of David” reveals that King David penned this particular Psalm. Of the 150 Psalms, David is credited with composing 73, while the remaining ones are attributed to various authors, including Asaph (50; 73-83) , Ethan the Ezrahite (89), Heman the Ezrahite (88), Moses (90), and Solomon (127). David wrote so many psalms that he was known as “the sweet psalmist of Israel.” 2 Sam 23:1

THE ESSENCE AND MESSAGE OF PSALM 61

Psalm 61 lies within a cluster of Psalms (56-64) which offer sombre glimpses into King David’s life and the challenges he confronted. This brief Psalm traces the author’s emotional journey, beginning with desperation and culminating in a reaffirmation of trust in God. Whilst the specific circumstances are not elaborated, the Psalm provides a glimpse into the author’s inner turmoil, frustration, and mental anguish as he cries out to God in anticipation of relief.

Verse 1 commences with an urgent yell of desperation: “Hear my cry, O God!” The Psalmist conveys his sense of distance from God by claiming to call from the “end of the earth,” symbolizing alienation and indicating dire circumstances. His heart is faint with despair (“heart” here signifies courage that has failed) thus mirroring the inner turmoil of the Psalmist.

However, amid his despair, the Psalmist realizes that there is only one who can help in times of great need – God. Therefore, he reaches out to the Almighty for comfort and strength. This underscores for us the importance of turning to God in prayer even in the darkest moments of life.

In verses 2-4, the Psalmist invokes three powerful metaphors to describe God: a high rock that offers refuge, a strong tower that symbolizes security, and peaceful shelter (under God’s wings). These images emphasize God’s omnipotence and reliability in all circumstances. This confidence that the Psalmist has in God’s protection and strength is rooted in past experiences.

In the latter part of the psalm, the author expresses unshakable confidence in God’s faithfulness: “For thou, O God, hast heard my vows: thou hast given me the heritage of those that fear thy name.” This declaration underscores the fundamental belief that God not only hears but also responds to the sincere petitions of His worshippers. It is enduring faith like this that has sustained believers through the ages.

The Psalmist concludes with a commitment to ongoing worship: “So will I sing praise unto thy name forever, that I may daily perform my vows.” This reflects a resolute dedication to a life of worship and gratitude, acknowledging that the relationship with God transcends a single moment of need and extends into daily devotion, from the present into eternity.

THE PIVOTAL STATEMENT OF PSALM 61

Allow me to conclude with a reflection on what is, for me, the key statement within this Psalm:

Verse 2b states, “When my heart is overwhelmed: lead me to the rock that is higher than I.”

This text reveals a profound truth – that, despite our faithfulness to God, life can be fraught with challenges and difficulties.” “When” rather than “If” underscores the fact that every believer, at some point, will experience moments of overwhelming despair. The word “overwhelmed” paints a vivid picture of being buried beneath darkness, crushed, and enshrouded by life’s burdens.

Christians can find themselves overwhelmed in various ways:

  1. Overwhelmed by Sin: Despite being cleansed from sin, Christians can still falter and err. This realization of our sinful nature can be overwhelming. Yet, we have the means to rise above it through confession and seeking God’s forgiveness. 1 John 1:9 “If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just to forgive us our sins, and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness.”
  2. Overwhelmed by Sorrow: This world is filled with sorrow, stemming from the consequences of human actions and the fragility of life. Loss, betrayal, and shattered dreams can bring overwhelming grief. In such moments, we turn to God for solace.
  3. Overwhelmed by Suffering: Suffering is an undeniable part of life. Illness, mortality, and witnessing the suffering of others can lead to feelings of being overwhelmed. In these times, we rely on God’s strength to endure.
  4. Overwhelmed by Service: While serving God is a privilege, it can also become burdensome. Burnout, disappointment, and feeling unappreciated can make service overwhelming. It is crucial to rely on God for strength and guidance in service.

In all these scenarios, the Psalmist’s cry becomes our own: “When my heart is overwhelmed: lead me to the rock that is higher than I.” It is a reminder that, in times of despair, we must turn to the Lord, the One who stands as our refuge and stronghold, and acknowledge our dependence on God’s strength to navigate life’s challenges and maintain our devotion to Him. Notice the four ‘I will’s in the psalm.

v.2 ‘I will cry’

v.4 ‘I will abide’

v.4 ‘I will trust’

v.8 ‘I will sing praise’

So, as we ponder Psalm 61, we find in its verses a timeless guide for seeking solace in God’s unwavering presence, irrespective of life’s overwhelming moments. Like other psalms, Psalm 61 has been a source of strength and comfort for countless believers throughout history. Its enduring appeal lies in its capacity to speak to the human condition and offer a pathway to deeper spiritual connection and understanding.

Posted in General

A GOOD WORD

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‘Heaviness in the heart of man maketh it stoop: but a good word maketh it glad.’ Prov 12:25  

Have you ever had heaviness of heart? Have you ever been anxious, worried about the present and apprehensive about what the future might hold. If so you are not the only one. All of us at one time or another find ourselves in that situation. This little verse addresses the problem of a heavy heart.  

It paints a picture, in just a few words, of someone who is bowed down, who is figuratively stooped and bent over because of an anxious heart. This person is downcast and discouraged, full of uneasiness, fear, apprehension and stress. This is someone who has come to the end of his tether, who just does not know what to do. Worry has given way to despair, and the burden is so heavy that this person has hit rock-bottom, now looks downward all the time, and cannot even look up for help.

But then something occurs that brings about a noticeable change. Depression and dejection have lifted. That person is no longer stooped, the load has lightened. What has happened? A good word was spoken to him, and this good word banished the heaviness in his heart.

We human beings need to hear a good word every now and then. From time to time we all require encouragement. In this verse a wise man observed that a good word makes a person glad. The good word actually uplifts the anxious heart.

Think of some examples of individuals in the Bible who had heaviness of the heart;

Nehemiah:- ‘And it came to pass, when I heard these words, that I sat down and wept, and mourned certain days, and fasted, and prayed before the God of heaven.’ Neh 1:4

David:- ‘I am troubled; I am bowed down greatly; I go mourning all the day long.’ Psalm 38:6

Jeremiah:- ‘When I would comfort myself against sorrow, my heart is faint in me.’Jer 8:18

Where is that necessary ‘good word’ likely to come from. Let me suggest three possible sources.

1. THE WORD OF GOD

‘…thy word was unto me the joy and rejoicing of mine heart…’ Jer 15:16

Ideally, for a Christian, the first recourse for support should always be the living word of God. We ought to turn immediately to the Bible whenever we need ‘a good word’. There are many ‘exceeding great and precious promises’ (2 Pet 1:4) and encouraging verses in God’s word. Verses such as:

‘For God hath not given us the spirit of fear; but of power, and of love, and of a sound mind.’ 2 Tim 1:7

‘Be of good courage, and he shall strengthen your heart, all ye that hope in the LORD.’ Psalm 31:24

‘Peace I leave with you, my peace I give unto you: not as the world giveth, give I unto you. Let not your heart be troubled, neither let it be afraid.’ Jn 14:27

When we are bowed down with worry let us turn to the Bible, and find relief from heaviness of heart.

2. THE ASSEMBLY OF GOD

‘Not forsaking the assembling of ourselves together, as the manner of some is; but exhorting one another: and so much the more, as ye see the day approaching.’ Heb 10:25

We ought to receive encouragement at the meetings of the assembly of God, the local church. There may be exceptions but, generally speaking, whenever we attend a meeting, especially the ‘Breaking of Bread’, we receive ‘a good word’ as a result of hearing:

  • The hymns of worship sung.
  • Thanks given to God for his great plan of salvation.
  • The word of God publicly read and preached.
  • The name of the our Lord Jesus uplifted and praised.

3. THE CHILDREN OF GOD 

Still thinking of v.25 of Hebrews 10:

“… exhorting one another: and so much the more, as ye see the day approaching.” Hebrews 10:25

Every Christian has a responsibility to encourage others. According to the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews this is something we ought to do often. Do you ever take the time to speak ‘a good word’ of encouragement and comfort to a fellow-believer?

Finally, it is possible to become so bowed down with anxiety that we just don’t get anything from reading the Bible, attending church meetings (even if able to do so), or conversing with other Christians. In the event that we find ourselves in such a distressing situation let us console ourselves with the thought that God loves us. At the very least, when nothing else seems to be going right, we can rely on that.

‘The LORD hath appeared of old unto me, saying, Yea, I have loved thee with an everlasting love: therefore with lovingkindness have I drawn thee.’ Jer 31:3

Notice that ‘thee’ is singular. God’s love for each one of us is personal and individual.

Aren’t we thankful that there is a remedy for heaviness (anxiety, fear and apprehension) in our hearts. This verse supplies the solution. Proverbs 12:25 says plainly that ‘a good word’ will restore our joy.

‘Heaviness in the heart of man maketh it stoop: but a good word maketh it glad.’

Posted in Exposition

NEHEMIAH 13:15-31

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13:15-22 RESTORATION OF SABBATH OBSERVANCE

Nehemiah finds that in his absence (‘in those days’) some in Judah have not been observing the Sabbath, but engaging in trade and commerce on the holy day. The offenders listed were involved in the main industry – agriculture – and included wine makers, farmers, fruit growers and haulage operatives. The word translated ‘sheaves’ means ‘heaps’ and need not be restricted to grain. As well as violating the command not to work, the loading and transportation of goods by donkey into Jerusalem also transgressed the concept of no (or very limited) travel on the Sabbath (Ex 16:29; Acts 1:12). Sabbath observance is prescribed in the one of the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:8-11; 31:12-17) and was viewed by Isaiah (56:1-8) as something that results in blessing. The prophets Jeremiah (17:19-27), Ezekiel (20:12-24) and Amos (8:4-5) identified profanation of the Sabbath as a cause of the woes that befell the Israelites; because they had became just like the heathens around them.

Nehemiah also observes that merchants from Tyre who had set up a trading colony in Jerusalem were selling fish and all kinds of wares to the local people on the Sabbath.

THE PHOENICIAN PORT OF TYRE

Tyre was an important port for the Phoenicians, a nation famous in ancient times for seafaring and commerce. Just as the Arabs with their camel trains dominated the transportation of goods over land so the Phoenician merchant navy dominated the shipping routes; conveying goods to and from the three continents (Africa, Asia and Europe) bordering the Mediterranean. They carried not only seawater fish from the Mediterranean and freshwater fish from the Nile but also an abundance of other foodstuffs, exported in cylindrical clay jars. These included: fish paste, pine nuts, olives, olive oil, wine, honey and grain. They shipped luxury goods like furniture, metal tableware (e.g. decorated bowls, candelabra), purple dye, and carved ivories, and were also experts in the delivery of bulk timber by sea (1 Kgs 5:9; 1 Chron 22:4; 2 Chron 2:3-16; Ezra 3:7). The prowess of the Phoenicians (Tyre and Sidon) as merchants and human traffickers is acknowledged by the Old Testament Hebrew prophets (Isa 23:1-8, 17-18; Ezekiel 27:1-36; 28:1-5; Joel 3:4-7; Amos 1:9). Ezekiel chapter 27 is of special historical interest because it not only gives a list of commodities traded by the Tyrians but also details the many and widespread locations where they did business.

NEHEMIAH PROMOTES SABBATH OBSERVANCE

Nehemiah confronts the Judaean nobles and accuses them of profaning the Sabbath (for this expression see: Neh 13:17, 18; Ezek 20:16, 21, 24, ; 22:8; 23:38) and adding to God’s wrath against them. He warns them about God’s punishment (13:18). He then institutes practical measures to enforce Sabbath observance and ensure the sanctity of the day.

  • Nehemiah closes the gates of Jerusalem on the Sabbath and initially has his servants guard them so that no burden could be carried into the city.
  • Some of the merchants camp outside the city gates so that the locals can go out and buy from them. Nehemiah tells them to leave or face forcible removal. They leave.
  • Nehemiah then hands over responsibility for guarding to gates to the Levites, after they purify themselves for the Sabbath.

13:22 Nehemiah again asks God to take note of his actions and ‘spare’ (have compassion on) him.

13:23-29 PROBLEM OF EXOGAMOUS MARRIAGES

Upon his return from Persia Nehemiah discovers that in his absence an old issue has resurfaced. Some Israelite men have married foreign women, contrary to God’s law (Deut 23:3-6)and the covenant that had been signed in chapter ten. One of the points of that covenant was the cessation of exogamous marriage (10:30). Nehemiah cites two specific examples of the problem.

1) Half the children spoke (Aramaic?) in a foreign dialect and could not speak ‘the language of the Jews’ i.e. Hebrew. Nehemiah could easily distinguish between the speech of children of Ashdodite mothers and that of children from all Jewish households. He was concerned about ungodly foreign cultural influence and was also very much aware that Jewish national identity was bound up with the worship of God. Since Hebrew was the language of the Jewish religion children who did not speak it could not be taught or understand the scriptures. Men who had married foreign wives were not only neglecting the Hebrew language, they were jeopardizing the purity of the Jewish religion.

Nehemiah therefore takes the offenders to court and challenges their actions. He calls down the curses of the broken covenant upon them, subjects them to a public shaming ritual (see Isa 50:6) and makes them take an oath once again not to marry their children off to foreigners. The reason (vv. 26-27) given for this is the sin of Solomon. In spite of the fact that God loved him (2 Sam 12:24-25) and made him king over all Israel (1 Kgs 4:1) Solomon entered into diplomatic marriages with foreign wives (1 Kgs 11:1-10; 2 Chron 8:11) who led him away from the true worship of Yahweh.

2) Jehoiada, son or grandson of the High Priest Eliashib, had married the daughter of Sanballat the Horonite, who was an enemy of Nehemiah (2:19; 4:1-2, 7; 6:1-9, 14) and a pagan. In the regulations recorded in Lev 21:10-15 the high priest was required to ‘take a virgin of his own people to wife’. In practical terms this prohibition against marrying a foreign wife probably extended to the sons and grandsons of a high priest since they could possibly become high priest in the future. Nehemiah expelled Jehoiada from Judea.

Nehemiah’s prayer at the end of this section (v29) is not about himself but he instead directs his prayer against the high priestly family who, because of intermarriage, had set a bad example to the people, defiled the priesthood and broken the covenant of 10:29-30.

13:30-31 SUMMARY OF NEHEMIAH’S CULTIC REFORMS

Nehemiah ends his memoir by summarizing his main achievements. He lists these as action taken against foreign marriages (10:30; 13:23ff), reorganisation of the temple duties of the priests and Levites (10:37-39; 12:44-47; 13:12-13), the institution of a wood offering (10:34) and the revival/rescheduling of the firstfruits offering (10:35-37).

SUMMATION

Nehemiah chapter thirteen emphasizes the need for continual vigilance in upholding God’s standards and reminds us that spiritual renewal is an ongoing process. The chapter underscores the importance of maintaining purity, honouring the Lord’s demands, and the people of God keeping separate from unholy influences. In spite of Nehemiah’s accomplishments chapter thirteen ends on a somewhat negative note. Sadly, the Israelites do not seem to have shared Nehemiah’s enthusiasm for the things of God. They yielded to secular and religious pressure from outside their community and, despite pledging ‘to walk in God’s law’ (10:29), they abandoned their commitments concerning intermarriage (10:30), Sabbath observance (10:31), and support of the Temple service (10:37-39) soon after Nehemiah left for Persia.

Chapter thirteen records Nehemiah’s final efforts to restore Jerusalem’s spiritual and moral fabric, and provides us with valuable examples of active leadership, faithfulness, and a timely warning about the possibility of departure from the will of God.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Carson, D.A. (2018). NIV Biblical Theology Study Bible : Follow God’s Redemptive Plan as it Unfolds Throughout Scripture [Previously published as NIV Zondervan Study Bible]. Grand Rapids, Mi: Zondervan.

Grabbe, L.L. (2012). An introduction to Second Temple Judaism : History and Religion of the Jews in the time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel and Jesus. London Bloomsbury.

Knut Larson, Anders, M. and Dahlen, K. (2005). Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther. Nashville, Tenn. Broadman & Holman C.

López-Ruiz C. and Doak, B.R. (2019). The Oxford Handbook of the Phoenician and Punic Mediterranean. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Ruckman, P.S. (2004). The Books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther. (The Bible Believer’s Commentary Series).

JOURNAL ARTICLES

Berlin, A.M. (1997). From Monarchy to Markets: The Phoenicians in Hellenistic Palestine. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 306, pp.75–88. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/1357550.

Master, D.M. (2014). Economy and Exchange in the Iron Age Kingdoms of the Southern Levant. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 372, pp.81–97. doi:https://doi.org/10.5615/bullamerschoorie.372.0081.

Noonan, B.J. (2011). Did Nehemiah Own Tyrian Goods? Trade between Judea and Phoenicia during the Achaemenid Period. Journal of Biblical Literature, 130(2), pp.281–298. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/41304201.

Nehemiah 13:1-3

Nehemiah 13:4-14

Posted in Exposition

NEHEMIAH 13:4-14

Posted on by writtenexposition

13:4-9 EXPULSION OF TOBIAH FROM THE TEMPLE

The main problem Nehemiah addresses in this section is the fact that Eliashib the priest had allowed Tobiah the Ammonite, a non-Jew, to occupy a spacious ‘room’ in the temple. Some suggest that Tobiah may have used the space for commercial purposes since in 13:5 the word liškāh (translated ‘room’ or ‘chamber’) often means storeroom (1 Chron. 9:26; 2 Chron. 31:11; Ezra 8:29; Neh. 10:38-39), but 13:7 uses the word nišḵāh, which refers to living quarters.

ELIASHIB

This ‘Eliashib the priest’ is probably the same Eliashib who was High Priest at that time (3:1, 20-21; 12:10, 22; 13:28) and would certainly have had the authority provide this space to Tobiah. He had participated in the building of the walls (3:1) but thereafter continued to associate with (‘allied’ = ‘close to’ v.4b) Nehemiah’s enemy Tobiah, especially while Nehemiah was away from Jerusalem. Sometimes ‘the priest’ is shorthand for ‘High Priest’, for example: Zadok (1 Kgs 1:8, 26, 32, 34, 38, 39, 44, 45; 2:35; 4;2 ,4) and Joshua in Ezra chapter 3, cp. Zech 6:11).

TOBIAH

Tobiah first appears in 2:10 where he is mentioned as one of the local dignitaries unhappy that Nehemiah had come ‘to seek the welfare of the people of Israel’. He and his friends mocked Nehemiah’s work on the walls, saying that the walls would be so weak that even a fox could knock them down (4:3). Tobiah, however, seems to have established close links with local Israelite officials, including members of the priesthood. This he partly achieved through marriage alliances with prominent Israelite families:

‘Moreover in those days the nobles of Judah sent many letters unto Tobiah, and the letters of Tobiah came unto them. For there were many in Judah sworn unto him, because he was the son in law of Shechaniah the son of Arah; and his son Johanan had taken the daughter of Meshullam the son of Berechiah (see 3:30). Also they reported his good deeds before me, and uttered my words to him. And Tobiah sent letters to put me in fear’ Neh 6:17-19

The provision by Eliashib the priest of a large ‘room’ in the temple for use by Tobiah (13:5) was a serious violation of the law as Deut 23:3-6 prohibited non-Jews from entering the temple or participating in its worship. It would seem that little has changed since then; even today some religious leaders still think that they are above God’s laws.

The room allocated to Tobiah was in an area of the temple which had been designated for the storage of paraphernalia relating to worship (12:44,) such as:

  • Grain offering
  • Frankincense
  • Vessels
  • Agricultural tithes (corn, new wine, oil).

The people had previously committed themselves in writing to provide the above items and store them in the Temple (9:38; 10:38-39). These goods were for the support of temple staff: the Levites, the singers, the porters and the priests. Although the items had been sanctified (12:47), Eliashib the priest had removed them from the storage area in order to accommodate Tobiah. This was a deliberate act of desecration.

Nehemiah emphasizes that he was out of the country (because he had returned to report to the king in Persia) when this happened and did not therefore become aware of it until he returned to Jerusalem (13:6-7). Neither Eliashib nor Tobiah may have expected Nehemiah to return so soon.

Nehemiah was furious when he heard of the arrangement and took immediate action to correct the problem. Determined to restore the temple to its proper state he used his power as Persian governor to overrule this poor decision by the temple authorities. He summarily removed Tobiah’s furniture and belongings (13:8) and had the area purified (13:8-9) and restocked.

13:10-14 REORGANISATION OF THE LEVITES

Nehemiah learns that the giving of tithes had ceased during his period of absence with the result that the Levites and the singers, who were responsible for conducting the temple services (‘that did the work’ KJV), had not received their portions of tithes and offerings.

The Torah envisaged that the tribe of Levi would be supported by the other tribes by means of the tithe (Num 18:21-24; Deut 14:27-28). The apostle Paul directly references this Old Testament system and applies its principles to the support of Christian workers in the New Testament era:

Do ye not know that they which minister about holy things live of the things of the temple? and they which wait at the altar are partakers with the altar? Even so hath the Lord ordained that they which preach the gospel should live of the gospel. 1 Cor 9:13-14

The Levites had therefore left their duties (13:10, ‘fled’ i.e. the situation was forced upon them) and returned to their fields in order to support themselves financially; thus severely disrupting the worship of Yahweh. The passage may imply that this state of affairs was brought about by Tobiah’s occupation of the storage unit.

In theory the Levites ought not to have had pastureland other than that surrounding towns that had been allocated to them by the Lord (a list of the ‘Levitical cities’ is recorded in Josh 21:1-41 and in 1 Chron 6:54-81). It would seem, however, that in Nehemiah’s day Levites lived and farmed in various additional locations throughout the territory of Judah (7:72; 11:20; 12:27).

Since the ruling class in Judah had neglected their responsibilities with regards to the financial support of the Temple personnel, Nehemiah, as Persian governor, conducted a court case against them (13:11a) and accused them of forsaking the house of God, i.e. of breaking the covenant they made in 10:29ff. The word translated as ‘rebuke’ (5:7) and ‘contend’ (13:11,17, 25) in KJV means ‘to conduct a lawsuit or legal case’.

Nehemiah then gathered ‘them’ (the Levites and singers, not the rulers) together and got them back to their work in the temple. With the temple service revived the people of Judah responded positively. Soon the tithes were given and collected and proper distribution of the provisions restored. Nehemiah seized the opportunity to reorganise the Levites (13:13). No longer would responsibility for looking after the temple storerooms and distribution of support for the Levites be controlled by one man who, like Eliashib, might prove unreliable. Instead, Nehemiah assigned these tasks to a panel of three officials, Shelemiah, Zadok and Pedaiah. Hanan the son of of Zaccur, the son of Mattaniah was appointed to assist them. All of these committee members were honest and trustworthy men who, it appears, acted on behalf of the main parties which had an interest in the smooth operation of the system of tithing.

Shelemiah was a priest.

Pedaiah was a Levite (cp 3:25).

Hanan, presumably, was a singer. He was a grandson of Mattaniah who was the Temple choirmaster (11:17, 22; 12:8, 25).

Zadok the Scribe would have represented the interest of the Persian government.

13:14 – Throughout this chapter Nehemiah finishes his account of each reform with a short prayer (13:14, 22, 31). Here he asks God not to blot out the good deeds he had so loyally and faithfully performed for the temple of God and its services.

In this prayer Nehemiah uses the metaphor of God maintaining a ledger. The idea occurs several times throughout scripture, for example: Psa 56:8; 139:16; Isa 65:6; Dan 7:9-10; Mal 3:16; Rev 20:12; 21:27.

Nehemiah 13:1-3

Nehemiah 13:15-31

Posted in Exposition

NEHEMIAH 13:1-3

Posted on by writtenexposition

Nehemiah chapter 13 concludes the book of Nehemiah and provides insight into the reforms implemented by Nehemiah upon his return to Jerusalem from Persia. The background to chapter 13 may be summarised as follows:

BACKGROUND TO NEHEMIAH CHAPTER 13

Nehemiah, a Jewish cupbearer to king Artaxerxes I (465-424 BCE) of Persia, received news from home about the deteriorating state of Jerusalem and its broken walls. He therefore sought permission from the king for leave of absence from his job at Susa in order to return to Jerusalem, rebuild the walls and restore the glory of the city.

Having obtained the king’s blessing and support, Nehemiah travelled to Jerusalem in 445 BCE (2:1; 5:14) and rallied the people to rebuild the walls. Despite some local opposition, the walls were completed in fifty-two days (6:15). Nehemiah then focused on the spiritual renewal of the Jewish community. After twelve years in Jerusalem (5:14; 13:6) Nehemiah returned to the Persian court in 433 BCE. He must have continued to receive news from Jerusalem because he soon became aware that, in a spiritual sense, things were not progressing well there since his departure.

In chapter 13, Nehemiah returns to Jerusalem after an unspecified period of absence in Babylon. The date was probably 430 or 429 BCE. True enough, he finds that the people have reverted to various forms of disobedience and have neglected the laws of God. This final chapter highlights several significant events:

13:1-3 SEPARATION RENEWED

13:4-9 EXPULSION OF TOBIAH FROM THE TEMPLE

13:10-14 REORGANISATION OF THE LEVITES

13:15-22 RESTORATION OF SABBATH OBSERVANCE

13:23-29 PROBLEM OF EXOGAMOUS MARRIAGES

13: 30-31 SUMMARY OF NEHEMIAH’S CULTIC REFORMS

13:1-3 SEPARATION RENEWED

‘On that day’ (‘at that time’ i.e. in Nehemiah’s era) there was a public reading from the ‘book of Moses’ (cf. 2 Chron 25:4.; 35:12; Neh 8:1). This is certainly a reference to the torah (first five books of the Old Testament) since vv. 1b-2 cite Deut 23:3-6; a section of law dealing with persons excluded from Israelite worship. When the passage was read aloud the people learned that Ammonites or Moabites were specifically excluded from any religious assembly of Israel until ten generations had passed. This rule was to last forever. Interestingly, the reasons given for that do not include the origin of the two nations from the incestuous sexual relations each of Lot’s daughters had with him (Gen 19:30-38). Rather, the prohibition was based on on historical events. These two nations had opposed the Israelites after the exodus from Egypt and had hired a non-Israelite prophet called Balaam to curse them (Num 22-24). This, in turn, triggered a curse on them in accordance with God’s promise to Abraham in Gen 12:2-4. Although he could not actually bring himself to curse the Israelites Balaam nevertheless advised the Moabites how to lead them into sin (Num 31:16; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 11; Rev 2:14).

MOAB

The Bible has nothing good to say about the Moabites or Ammonites but Moab in particular is singled out for criticism. The prophet Jeremiah gives a penetrating assessment of this inveterate enemy of the Israelites in his book:

‘Moab hath been at ease from his youth, and he hath settled on his lees, and hath not been emptied from vessel to vessel, neither hath he gone into captivity: therefore his taste remained in him, and his scent is not changed.‘ Jer 48:11

Moab, as we have mentioned, had a bad beginning. Nevertheless, like many who oppose God and his people today, everything seemed to go well for them. Their history was characterized by comfort and prosperity. Unlike Israel, nothing disturbed or interfered with their lives of ease. They were never taken into captivity. Jeremiah paints a word picture from the ancient process of wine-making. Totally at ease in its wickedness, unthinking and unconcerned about its sinful idolatry, never having yearned for deliverance, Moab went to rot.

Jeremiah’s metaphorical language conveys a sense of stagnation and lack of transformation. Despite being a nation that had been established for a long time, Moab had never undergone significant changes or been refined through challenging experiences. As a result, the character and behaviour of the Moabites remained unchanged, they were self-assured and unyielding. This important verse condemns Moab’s pride and self-reliance, suggesting that their failure to grow spiritually and morally would lead to their downfall and judgment from God. Devastation would come upon Moab as a consequence of their actions.

After the public reading of the law a ‘separation’ (Ezr 9:1; 10:11; Neh 10:28) of ‘the mixture’ took place. Not just Ammonites and Moabites were separated, but all foreigners. Intermarriage with the Canaanite nations had been forbidden because family relationships with idolators was perceived as likely to cause a turning away from the worship of Yahweh, the one true God (Deut 7:3-4). This problem seems to have plagued the Israelites throughout their history. During the era of Ezra and Nehemiah at least three attempts were made over a period of thirty years (468-429 BCE) to resolve the issue. Although these measures were fairly drastic (e.g. mass divorce, covenant not to intermarry), they were not entirely successful (Ezra 9-10; Neh 9:2; 10:28-30; 13:1-3). Nehemiah returns to the topic of unacceptable marriages later in the chapter.

The New Testament teaches the same general principle; that when it comes to spiritual matters a mixture never produces positive results. Every so often there must be a return to the word of God; accompanied by self-assessment leading to remedial action. 2 Corinthians 6:14-18:

‘Be ye not unequally yoked together with unbelievers: for what fellowship hath righteousness with unrighteousness? and what communion hath light with darkness? And what concord hath Christ with Belial? or what part hath he that believeth with an infidel? And what agreement hath the temple of God with idols? for ye are the temple of the living God; as God hath said, I will dwell in them, and walk in them; and I will be their God, and they shall be my people. Wherefore come out from among them, and be ye separate, saith the Lord, and touch not the unclean thing; and I will receive you.’

Nehemiah 13:4-14

Nehemiah 13:15-31

Posted in Exposition

EZEKIEL’S VISION OF THE GLORY OF YAHWEH (1:4-28)

Posted on by writtenexposition

Ezekiel’s vision of the glory of the Lord is one of the most famous passages in the Bible. It is an elaborate, powerful and awe-inspiring description of God’s presence and majesty. Here is a summary of the key elements of the vision:

SUMMARY

The vision begins with Ezekiel seeing a great storm coming from the north. The storm is accompanied by lightning, thunder, and a brilliant light. In the centre of this light, Ezekiel sees what appears to be four living creatures. Each creature has four faces and four wings. Their legs are straight, and their feet resemble those of a calf. Their faces represent different aspects of creation: a human face, a lion face, an ox face, and an eagle face. These living creatures move with incredible speed and coordination, and their wings touch one another as they move.

The vision continues with Ezekiel seeing wheels, described as ‘terrifying’ (1:18), beside the living creatures. The wheels are covered in eyes and travel along with the living creatures, following their movements without turning.

Above the heads of the living creatures, Ezekiel sees a firmament (dome) that resembles a crystal expanse. Above it is a throne-like structure that appears like sapphire, and upon the throne is a figure that looks like a man. This figure shines with a brilliant light and is surrounded by a radiance that resembles a rainbow.

The vision concludes with Ezekiel understanding that this extraordinary sight represents the glory of the Lord.

COMMENTS

From verse four Ezekiel attempts to describe what he sees. The opening words are ‘And I saw.’ The expression occurs again in vv. 15 and 27.

He observes a whirlwind, symbolizing a powerful and dynamic force, coming from the north. Jeremiah also spoke of God’s judgement as a whirlwind (23:19; 25:32). In the ancient Near East there was a notion that the gods dwelt in the north. Ancient Canaanites (e.g. Hurrians, Hittites) believed that Baal lived at Mount Zaphon (zaphon became the Hebrew word for northward, the direction ‘north’). The Babylonians also believed that the gods resided in the north. Isa 14:13 refers to this belief by the nations. In Job 26:7; 37:22 the north is viewed as the opposite of earth; perhaps suggesting heaven as God’s home.

Israelites associated ‘the north’ with threats from hostile forces like Assyria and Babylonia. Ezekiel later prophesies that the final invasion of Israel before complete restoration will come from the north (38:6,15). From Ezekiel’s perspective, it is also the direction from which the Babylonian army will invade Judah.

The whirlwind is accompanied by a great cloud with blazing fire that seems to be consuming itself. In the Bible theophanies (appearances of God) are often described in terms of an atmospheric storm (Ex 19:16-18; Deut 33:2; Judg 5:4; Job 38:1; 40:6; Psa 18:7–15; 29:3–9; 50:3; 97:1-5; 104:3; Isa 29:6; Jer 23:19; Nah 1:3; Hab 3:8-15; Zech 9:14).

The cloud contains a fire, of which Ezekiel says ‘and a brightness about it.’ This is repeated in 1:27. The same word is used in Dan 12:3 of the brightness of heaven. The brightness and radiance of the fire are ‘like’ amber, which suggests a golden, glowing colour. The LXX and Vulgate translate ‘amber’ as ‘electrum’ – a shiny metal compounded of four parts gold and one silver (white gold). The only biblical occurrences of the word are in Ezekiel 1:4, 27; 8:2.

The storm, cloud and fire are symbols of wrath which together communicate the idea of the awe-inspiring presence and majesty of God.

Notice that Ezekiel avoids speaking of Yahweh in tangible terms. He describes God in the language of simile, using the terms ‘like’, ‘as’, ‘appearance’ or ‘likeness’ (1;4, 5, 13,16, 22, 24, 26, 27). Yahweh is indescribable, thus Ezekiel uses these words meaning ‘as it were’.

Within the whirlwind and fire, Ezekiel sees the ‘likeness’ of four living creatures (ḥayyāh -wild animals, as opposed to domestic animals). Verses 5b-14 give a description of these creatures. They have a human-like appearance, which probably implies that they possess intelligence and understanding. Each of them has (one head with) four faces, and four wings. Obviously supernatural beings, they are identified as cherubim in Ezek 10:1-22.

Ezekiel notes that their legs are straight, resembling the legs of a calf. Probably each creature has just one leg (Heb: ‘a straight foot’) with a hoof like a calf’s hoof, but, since Ezekiel says they were humanoid (presumably one head, human hands), he may mean that they have two legs each. Their hooves have a sparkling appearance, reminiscent of burnished bronze. The legs are described as ‘straight’. Some interpret this as meaning that the legs are parallel, others that they have no knee joints by which to bend their legs. This would imply that they never sit or lie down; they are constantly on the move.

1:10 describes the faces in some detail.

Lion – fearsome beast – Num 23:24; 24:9; Judg 14:18; 2 Sam 1:23.

Eagle – magnificent bird – Deut 28:49; 2 Sam 1:23; Job 39:27-30; Jer 48:40; Lam 4:19.

Ox – prized domestic animal – Ex 21:35- 22:15; Job 21:10; Prov 14:4.

Man – rules over over the animal kingdom – Gen 1:28; Psa 8:6-8.

From Ezekiel’s viewpoint (the south) coming towards him from the north was the human face at the front, the eagle face behind, the lion face to the right, the ox face to the left. In Ezekiel 10:14 the ox face has been changed to the face of a cherub and is called ‘the first face’.

In 1:8-9 and again in 1:11-12 their wings and movement are described. The four beings are connected to each other by two wings, thus forming a square. Two expressions are used in 1:9 and again in 1:12 to describe their movement:

a) ‘they turned not when they went’ and

b) ‘they went every one straight forward’.

Later, in v.24, Ezekiel describes the noise of the wings.

There are four wheels, representing mobility, under the four creatures. Each has the appearance of a wheel spinning within a wheel. They are described in vv. 15-21. The high rims (rings , v.18) are full of eyes – symbolizing the Lord’s omniscience (2 Chron 16:9; Zech 4:10, cp Rev 4:6, 8).

1:19-21 The wheels and the creatures move together as directed by the spirit. In 1:4 rûaḥ (wind, mind, breath, spirit) is translated ‘wind’, but in v.12 it is generally read as ‘spirit’. ‘The spirit of the living creature was in the wheels’ is usually interpreted as referring to the divine spirit. The LXX and Vulgate, however, render it ‘the spirit of life’, i.e. the life-giving spirit of the Lord. It may be, however, that Ezekiel just means that propulsion comes from the wind created by the whirling of the wheels. Ezek 10:13 says: ‘As for the wheels, they were called in my hearing the whirling wheels.’ (ESV). The cherubim look straight ahead, not up, as they move along.

Verse 22 introduces the firmament (dome, broad expanse, platform) above the heads of the four creatures (‘living creature’ – collective noun in the singular, see v.16 ‘the four had one likeness’). The best known use of this word ‘firmament’ is in Gen 1:6 where it is used of the heavens in the description of the second day of creation.

Although the passage primarily focuses on the visual aspects of Ezekiel’s vision we learn that his revelatory experience contained audio as well (1:24, 25, 28). In connection with the platform being borne by the creature Ezekiel mentions the great noise made by the wings (v.24). It is like ‘the noise of many waters’, ‘the sound of the Almighty’, and ‘the tumult of an army’. Ezekiel not only hears the noise of the wings below the expanse but also when the creatures let down their wings and stand still he hears a voice (or noise, sound) coming from above it; from the throne of the Lord.

The throne seems to be made of sapphire, which is blue in colour (see also 10:1). Elsewhere Micaiah the son of Imlah (1 Kgs 22:19) and Isaiah (Isa 6:1) saw Yahweh sitting on a throne. Above the throne Ezekiel sees a human figure. This is the appearance of the kabod (glory, lit. weight) of Yahweh in human form (1:28).

From the loins up (in everyday speech we would probably say: ‘from the waist’) this figure has the colour of amber and from that area downward the appearance of fire. The complete figure is enshrouded by a brightness that shines like a rainbow. Light is the overwhelming feature of the Lord’s presence since all the main parts of the vision (creatures, wheels, firmament, throne) are described in terms of fire and colour. The following colours are mentioned:

  • amber -1:4, 27
  • burnished brass (polished bronze) – 1:7
  • the colour of a beryl – 1:16
  • the colour of the terrible (awe-inspiring) crystal i.e. ice, frost – 1:22
  • the appearance of sapphire – 1:26

The vision began with a storm (1:4), in v. 28 the mention of a rainbow suggests that the vision is now over. Ezekiel is overwhelmed by the experience and reacts by falling on his face. He then hears a voice speaking to him.

SUMMATION

The function of this first vision in the book of Ezekiel is to validate Ezekiel’s claim to be a prophet of the Lord. His experience of the theophany / encounter with the kabod of the Lord establishes his prophetic authority. The vision proves that Ezekiel is not like the other Israelite exiles in Babylon. He sees and hear things that they cannot see or hear and must therefore act as a messenger of God’s word to them. The splendour of the glory of the Lord serves as a powerful affirmation of Ezekiel’s prophetic commission and will motivate and give him confidence to proclaim God’s messages to the people.

EZEKIEL 1:1-3 – INTRODUCTION AND SUPERSCRIPTION

‘AND HE SAID TO ME’ – EZEKIEL’S CALL TO BE A PROPHET – 2:1-3:15

EZEKIEL’S WATCHMAN ROLE: A PROPHETIC CALL TO RESPONSIBILITY- 3:16-27

Posted in General

WHO WAS ZADOK THE PRIEST?

Posted on by writtenexposition

INTRODUCTION

The term ‘Zadok the Priest’ usually brings to mind a piece of music composed by George Frideric Handel in 1727 and first performed during the coronation of King George II and Queen Caroline of England on 11th October of that year. Since then this iconic anthem has been sung at the coronation of every British monarch (with the exception of Edward VIII who abdicated the throne before the date set for his coronation) and was therefore played during the coronation of King Charles III and Queen Camilla.

‘Zadok the Priest, and Nathan the Prophet anointed Solomon King.
And all the people rejoiced, and said:
God save the King! Long live the King!
May the King live for ever,
Amen, Alleluia.’

The biblical passage 1 Kings 1:38-48 is the inspiration for those words of the anthem:

So, what does the Bible tell us about Zadok?

THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF ZADOK’S STORY

Zadok was a priest in the time of King David and King Solomon who ruled over the ancient kingdom of Israel; David being the second king and Solomon his son and successor. David is believed to have become king around 1010 BCE, while Solomon reigned c. 970 – 930 BCE. David established Jerusalem as the capital of Israel and united the Israelite tribes into a single kingdom, Solomon was known for his wisdom, for building the first Temple in Jerusalem, and for expanding Israel’s trade and influence. Zadok is famous for anointing Solomon as king.

ZADOK’S GENEALOGY

In 1 Chronicles 6:3-8 and 6:50-53, Zadok is listed as a descendant of Eleazar, Aaron’s third son. In 1 Chronicles 24:3, Zadok is again listed as a descendant of Eleazar. This genealogy stretching back to Aaron demonstrates that Zadok was of the priestly family descended from Aaron (the brother of Moses). He was therefore a member of the Aaronic priesthood.

ZADOK’S LOYALTY TO KING DAVID

Almost nothing is known about Zadok’s early life but it seems that he may have belonged to a family of warrior priests. We learn that David was proclaimed king of Judah after the death of King Saul and established his capital in Hebron (2 Sam 2:1-4) where he reigned over Judah for seven and a half years before being acclaimed as king over all Israel (2 Sam 5:1-5). 1 Chronicles chapter 12 records that thousands from Israel defected to David at Hebron and in the census list of armed contingents that came over to David there is a reference (vv. 27-28) to ‘Zadok, a young man of valour.’

The young Zadok supported David’s cause and appears to have been rewarded for his loyalty. Once David firmly established the united monarchy he appointed Zadok and Abiathar as co-priests (2 Sam 8:17; 20:25) in Jerusalem; likely as keepers of the Ark of Covenant which had been transported there and housed in a tented shrine (2 Sam 6:1-17; 7:2; 1 Kgs 2:26; 1 Chron 16:39-40). In David’s administration Zadok also served as chief officer of the Aaronites (1 Chron 27:17) and he worked closely with another priestly colleague called Ahimelech in the organisation of the rotating courses of the priests for religious service (1 Chron 18:16; 24:3, 6, 31).

Later Zadok again aligned himself with the king when David’s son Absalom rebelled. Since it seemed likely that Absalom’s conspiracy to usurp the throne would succeed David decided to flee Jerusalem. Zadok, Abiathar and a group of Levites left the city with him, taking the Ark of the Covenant as well. David, however, convinced that Jerusalem was the place where the ark ought to be, asked them to take it back. The two priests did so and, along with their two sons, remained there as secret agents. They kept David informed of events in the city (2 Sam. 15:13-36; 17:15-22). After Absalom’s rebellion failed David sent Zadok and Abiathar as emissaries to the elders of Judah in order to win back their support and negotiate his return to Jerusalem. Their mission was successful (2 Sam 19:11-15).

ZADOK’S INVOLVEMENT IN THE ANOINTING OF KING SOLOMON

Zadok once again demonstrated his loyalty to King David in the matter of Adonijah’s failed rebellion. Adonijah was the fourth son of King David, born in Hebron (2 Sam 3:4). He attempted to seize the throne while his father was still alive. The events surrounding Adonijah’s revolt are described in 1 Kings 1:5-53. Since David had grown old and infirm, Adonijah saw himself as the heir apparent and arranged to hold a grand feast at which he intended to proclaim himself king, and to which he invited many of David’s officials and supporters; but did not include others whom he knew would be loyal to David. The latter included Solomon, Nathan the prophet and Zadok the priest. Adonijah had the support of Joab, the commander of David’s army, and Abiathar the priest (for Abiathar’s part in the insurrection Solomon later dismissed him from his position as priest, 1 Kgs 2:26-27).

The prophet Nathan and Bathsheba, Solomon’s mother, brought the matter of Adonijah to David’s attention. He immediately took action to ensure that Solomon would be his successor. David instructed Nathan the prophet and Zadok the priest to proclaim Solomon as king (1 Kgs 1:34) and ride him on David’s own mule to the Gihon spring, where he would be officially anointed king over Israel.

So Zadok the priest, and Nathan the prophet, and Benaiah the son of Jehoiada, and the Cherethites, and the Pelethites, went down, and caused Solomon to ride upon king David’s mule, and brought him to Gihon.
And Zadok the priest took a horn of oil out of the tabernacle, and anointed Solomon. And they blew the trumpet; and all the people said, God save king Solomon. 1 Kgs 1:38-39

This was done, and the people rejoiced, while Adonijah’s followers fled in fear. Thus David settled the succession question by appointing Solomon co-regent. Father and son ruled together until David’s death. Solomon was later anointed as king a second time; along with him Zadok was anointed to be (chief) priest (1 Chron 29:22), possibly serving for a time at Solomon’s temple.

SOME LESSONS FROM THE LIFE OF ZADOK

Be loyal to God and to your leaders. Zadok was loyal to God and to King David. Even when David made mistakes, Zadok remained faithful. This is a valuable lesson for us to learn, it is important to be loyal to those in authority, even when they make mistakes.

Be a person of action. Zadok was a man of action. He was willing to stand up for what he believed in, even when it was difficult to do so. We ought to be willing to stand up for what we believe in, even when that involves personal cost.

Be a person of integrity. Zadok was a man of integrity. He was honest, trustworthy. and was doubtless a great example to his children. David described Zadok’s son Ahimaaz as ‘a good man’ (2 Sam 18:27) – he may have been the same Ahimaaz who married Solomon’s daughter Basmath (1 Kgs 4:15). Another of Zadok’s sons (or perhaps a grandson? 1 Chron 6:8-9), Azariah, was one of the top officials in Solomon’s administration (1 Kgs 4:2).

Zadok was a priest who faithfully served God and the king. He made sound choices in life and was able to play an important role in the history of Israel. He is therefore an example for us to follow.

Posted in Exposition

EZEKIEL 1:1-3 – INTRODUCTION AND SUPERSCRIPTION

Posted on by writtenexposition

1. Now it came to pass in the thirtieth year, in the fourth month, in the fifth day of the month, as I was among the captives by the river of Chebar, that the heavens were opened, and I saw visions of God. 2. In the fifth day of the month, which was the fifth year of king Jehoiachin’s captivity, 3. The word of the LORD came expressly unto Ezekiel the priest, the son of Buzi, in the land of the Chaldeans by the river Chebar; and the hand of the LORD was there upon him.

INTRODUCTION AND SUPERSCRIPTION

These verses introduce the book of Ezekiel and provide historical background, as well as some information about the prophet Ezekiel and his message. They indicate when and where he was active; thus situating his visions within a specific historical and cultural context.

1:1 Ezekiel’s prophetic ministry is said to have begun ‘in the thirtieth year.’ The significance of the ‘thirtieth year’ is not explained but it is usually understood to mean that Ezekiel was thirty years of age at the time. The date given is the fifth day of the fourth month. This would have been the month of Tammuz and therefore the time of year was late June/early July.

The vision occurred while Ezekiel was among the exiles by the Chebar, which was most likely a canal near Babylon. It seems that many exiled Jews had been settled in this area. Ezekiel’s location by the canal underscores the fact that he was living among the exiles and sharing in their experiences and struggles.

1:2 Verse 2 provides more detailed historical context by specifying that it was the fifth year of King Jehoiachin’s exile. This information dates Ezekiel’s inaugural vision (592 BCE) and places it within the larger context of the Babylonian exile.

King Jehoiachin (2 Kgs 24:6-16; 2 Chron 36:9-10, also known as Jeconiah (Jer 24:1; 27:20; 28:4; 29:2) and Coniah (Jer 22:24, 28; 37:1), was the son of King Jehoiakim of Judah and a grandson of King Josiah. Jehoiachin became king of Judah at the age of eighteen (2 Kgs 24:8). His short reign was marked by political instability and conflict with the Babylonians. According to the Chronicler he ‘did that which was evil in the sight of the Lord’ (2 Chron 36:9). Jeremiah 22:24-30 has the Lord directly addressing Jehoiachin, prophesying his captivity and exile in Babylon. The Lord also declared that Jehoiachin’s descendants would neither prosper nor sit on the throne of David, thus signifying the end of the dynasty.

In 597 BCE King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deported King Jehoiachin of Judah along with many of the leading citizens of Jerusalem (2 Kgs 24:15-16); including Ezekiel, who would have been twenty-five years of age at that time. Jehoiachin’s captivity in Babylon lasted for thirty-seven years. During that time, he was reportedly well-treated by the Babylonians and eventually released from captivity by King Evil-Merodach, who succeeded Nebuchadnezzar as ruler of Babylon. According to 2 Kings 25:27-30, Jehoiachin was then given a high position at the Babylonian court (new clothes, a daily allowance for the rest of his life, and allowed to dine at the king’s table).

Despite his short troubled reign and his captivity in Babylon, Jehoiachin was an important figure in the history of Judah. His deposition and deportation marked the beginning of the Babylonian Exile, a period of great spiritual and cultural significance for the Israelites. The Exile came to an end in 538 BCE.

During this difficult time Ezekiel, himself taken into captivity during Jehoiachin’s reign, provided spiritual guidance and hope to the exiles over a period of twenty years. The date of his inaugural vision in verse 2 is the first chronological marker in the book. The others are:

8:1 The vision of idols and abominations in the temple.

20:1 Ezekiel’s response to the elders.

24:1 The parable of a cooking pot

26:1 Threats against Tyre.

29:1 Prophecy against Egypt.

29:17 Desolation of Egypt.

30:20 Pharaoh’s defeat.

31:1 The cedar of Lebanon.

32:1 Lament over Pharoah..

32:17 Lament over Egypt.

33:21 News of the Fall of Jerusalem.

40:1 Vision of a new temple.

1:3 Verse 3 identifies Ezekiel as a member of the priestly class. This would suggest that his prophetic message was informed by his knowledge of Jewish ritual and tradition, which gave him religious authority to speak on behalf of God. Note that many respected commentators confidently assert that Ezekiel was a Zadokite priest. This they assume purely on the basis that Ezekiel speaks highly of the Zadokites in chapters 40-48, which contain his vision of how a future ideal temple might look and operate. In these chapters Ezekiel assigns a dominant role to the Zadokites (43:18-27; 44:15-16; 45:4; 46:19-24), presumably as a reward for remaining relatively (22:26) faithful (44:10-11, 15-16; 48:11) during the Exile. There is zero scriptural evidence for Ezekiel having a Zadokite heritage.

The reference to the “hand of the Lord” being upon him indicates that Ezekiel was divinely inspired and empowered to deliver God’s message to the exiles. The ‘land of the Chaldeans’ refers to the Neo-Babylonian empire ruled over by Nebopolassar (627-605 BCE) and his son Nebuchadnezzar (605-562 BCE).

SUMMATION

The opening verses of Ezekiel set the stage for the prophetic message that follows. The fact that Ezekiel received his vision among the exiles by the Chebar canal underscores the fact that his message is directed to the Israelite community in exile. The political and social upheaval of the time is also reflected in the references to King Jehoiachin’s exile and the Babylonian conquest.

Ezekiel 1:1-3 offers spiritual lessons that are still relevant today:

First, we see that God is not limited by our circumstances. Even in the midst of exile and captivity, God can still reveal himself and speak to his people.

Second, we see that God chooses ordinary people to do extraordinary things. Ezekiel was a priest, but God called him to be a prophet and to deliver his message to the exiles.

Finally, we see that God’s word is powerful and authoritative. Ezekiel’s prophetic message was not his own, but rather it came directly from God.

As we read the book of Ezekiel, we are reminded that God is sovereign over all of history, and that his word has the power to transform our lives and to give us hope even in the midst of difficult situations.

EZEKIEL’S VISION OF THE GLORY OF YAHWEH (1:4-28)

AND HE SAID TO ME’ – EZEKIEL’S CALL TO BE A PROPHET – 2:1-3:15

EZEKIEL’S WATCHMAN ROLE: A PROPHETIC CALL TO RESPONSIBILITY- 3:16-27

Posted in General

NATHAN : PROBABLY THE MOST INFLUENTIAL PROPHET MOST PEOPLE HAVE NEVER HEARD OF

Posted on by writtenexposition

Although it was still seven months to the coronation of King Charles III at the time of publication, the British tabloid newspaper Daily Mail printed ‘An A to Z guide to the Coronation’ by Claudia Connell on Saturday, October 15, 2022. The following was listed under N:

Nathan the Prophet

Perhaps not the most familiar of prophets but next May he’s going to be name-checked by the Archbishop of Canterbury in front of millions of TV viewers around the world. During the anointing of the King, the Archbishop will recall ‘as Solomon was anointed King by Zadok the Priest and Nathan the Prophet.’

Who was Nathan the prophet and what was his legacy?

INTRODUCTION

Nathan the Prophet is a biblical character who was active in the political and religious life of Israel during the reign of King David c. 1000 BCE. He is the second of two prominent prophets in the Books of Samuel each of whom had a strong influence on King David. These two prophets lived during a period of great social, political and religious change; Samuel, who preceded Nathan, identified more with the earlier way of life, Nathan with the latest developments.

In the years leading up to 1000 BCE there was a growing trend in the Ancient Near East away from loose tribal confederacies towards the centralisation of political power. This produced a gradual change from a pastoral, nomadic existence to a more settled urban way of life, with the economy based on agriculture rather than herding. Territory (where one lived) rather than tribe (who one was) began to take precedence. Monarchy, rather than chiefdom, became the political norm. In spite of the inevitable loss of freedom and additional expense involved the Israelites desired this type of arrangement. Ignoring warnings by Samuel (1 Sam 8:11-18) they insisted that they too wanted government by a king – a system that had already been adopted by Edom (1 Chron 1:43) and Ammon (1 Sam 12:12). Samuel eventually succumbed to pressure (1 Sam 12:1) and reluctantly anointed Saul as the first king of Israel. Later he also anointed David (1 Sam 16:13), the second king.

Nathan the prophet had a close relationship with David and was considered one of his most trusted advisors. He is connected with several important events in David’s reign, including the confrontation with David over his affair with Bathsheba and the anointing of Solomon as David’s successor.

2 Samuel 7:1-29 & 1 Chron 17:1-27 A ‘HOUSE’ FOR GOD AND A ‘HOUSE’ FOR DAVID.

Nathan’s role in these chapters is significant for he delivers a message from God to King David regarding the building of the Jerusalem temple.

Having built a ‘house’ (palace) for himself in Jerusalem David expressed to Nathan his desire to build a ‘house’ (temple) for Yahweh. Nathan, rather presumptuously and without consulting Yahweh, told David to go ahead with the building project. However, Yahweh spoke to Nathan and instructed him to tell David that he would not build the temple, but that his son would do that. Nathan mediated this message to David, emphasizing that it was God’s plan and that David should not be discouraged since God would establish a ‘house’ (dynasty) for David. His offspring would reign over Israel and, by implication, the kingdom would last forever. Christians view this as a prophecy of the coming of Jesus Christ, who would be a descendant of David and establish an eternal kingdom.

2 Samuel 12:1-25 NATHAN, DAVID, BATHSHEBA AND URIAH

In 2 Samuel chapter 12, the prophet Nathan again plays a crucial role in delivering a message from God, this time to confront King David about his sin with Bathsheba and the murder of her husband Uriah.

The story of David, Bathsheba, Uriah, and Nathan in 2 Samuel 11 is a complex and interesting narrative that highlights themes of power, lust, betrayal, and repentance. It concerns King David’s sexual liaison with Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah, one of David’s elite soldiers. It also details the role of Nathan the prophet, who is sent by God to confront David with his sin and call him to repentance.

David is described as staying behind in Jerusalem while his army goes out to battle. From his rooftop, he sees Bathsheba bathing and is overcome with lust for her. He sends for her and sleeps with her, even though she is married to Uriah, who is away fighting in the war against the Ammonites.

When Bathsheba becomes pregnant and send word to David, he tries to cover up his sin by bringing Uriah back from the front lines and encouraging him to go home and sleep with his wife. Uriah refuses to go to his house, saying that it would be unfair to enjoy home comforts while his fellow soldiers are still at war. David then sends Uriah back to the battlefield with a letter to Joab, the commanding officer of the army, instructing him to put Uriah in the front lines of battle and then withdraw so that Uriah will be killed. Uriah dies as planned, and David then takes Bathsheba as his wife.

Displeased with David’s actions YHWH sends Nathan the prophet to confront him. Nathan approaches David with a parable about a rich man who had taken a poor man’s only lamb, which the poor man loved and cared for like a daughter. In spite of the fact that he had many animals of his own, the rich man slaughtered the poor man’s lamb in order to feed a visitor. Outraged by the rich man’s actions David declares that he deserves to die for his cruelty. At this point, Nathan reveals that the rich man in the parable is David, who had committed a much greater injustice by taking Bathsheba (another man’s wife) and killing her husband.

Convicted by Nathan’s words David confesses his sin, acknowledging his guilt before God. Nathan tells David that God has forgiven him but warns him that there will be consequences for his actions, including the death of the child that Bathsheba is carrying. In addition, members of David’s own family would rebel against him and try to oust him as king.

The story of David, Bathsheba, Uriah, and Nathan is a cautionary tale about the dangers of power and lust, and the importance of accountability and repentance. It highlights the role of the prophet as a messenger of God speaking truth to the wealthy and influential and calling for justice and righteousness. It also underscores the idea that powerful leaders are not above the law and that all actions have consequences, both for the individual and for those around them.

1 Kgs 1:1-46; 4:5 SOLOMONS’S ACCESSION NARRATIVE

Nathan played a significant role in the succession of Solomon as king of Israel after David. As had been prophesied following David’s sin with Bathsheba, much strife and conflict took place within David’s family. David had many sons, and there seemed to be no clear line of succession. Adonijah, one of the sons, assumed that he was next in the line of succession and took steps to appoint himself co-regent with David, who was then in old age.

Nathan, however, intervened to ensure that Yahweh’s plan for the throne of Israel was fulfilled. He advised Bathsheba to go to David and remind him of a promise made to her that her son, Solomon, would succeed him on the throne (1 Kings 1:11-14). Nathan also supported Bathsheba’s claim by approaching David and confirming that Solomon was indeed the one to succeed him. Thus, through Nathan’s intervention, Solomon was anointed as king with David’s blessing, ensuring a relatively peaceful and orderly transition of power.

1 Chron 29:29 & 2 Chron 9:29 THE BOOK OF NATHAN THE PROPHET

The Book of Nathan the Prophet is mentioned in both 1 Chronicles 29:29 and 2 Chronicles 9:29. These verses suggest that Nathan wrote a historical account of King David’s reign, and that this account was preserved as a written record and was a source available to the compiler(s) of the Books of Kings and Chronicles. Material from it may also have been used in the Books of Samuel.

The mention of the Book of Nathan the Prophet in these verses reminds us that other texts and traditions existed as part of the religious and cultural landscape of ancient Israel, but did not become part of the biblical canon and have not survived.

2 Chron 29:25 NATHAN ASSISTED DAVID IN THE ORGANIZATION OF PUBLIC WORSHIP

2 Chronicles 29:25 describes the actions of Hezekiah, the thirteenth king of Judah, as he restores the worship practices of the temple in Jerusalem. The verse states:

‘And he set the Levites in the house of the LORD with cymbals, with psalteries, and with harps, according to the commandment of David, and of Gad the king’s seer, and Nathan the prophet: for so was the commandment of the LORD by his prophets.’

From this verse we learn that temple worship traditions and instructions handed down by earlier generations, in this case from David, Gad, and Nathan, were observed for centuries. Three hundred years after their institution Hezekiah honoured these traditions and instructions; ensuring the continuity of religious practices for which Nathan the prophet had been partly responsible.

SUMMATION

Nathan the Prophet played an important role in the lives of two kings and in the development of Israelite religion and literature. He was important as a prophet of Yahweh and for his good interpersonal, political and organisational skills. He is credited with having prophesied to David about the future of his dynasty and the construction of the temple in Jerusalem. He also confronted David about his affair with Bathsheba and helped to facilitate the succession of David’s son, Solomon, to the throne.

In addition to his role as an advisor to the king, it seems that Nathan was also a writer and historian. According to 1 Chronicles 29:29 and 2 Chronicles 9:29, he wrote a history of the reigns of David and Solomon, called the ‘Book of Nathan the Prophet’.

Overall, Nathan’s historical significance lies in his role as a key figure in the history of ancient Israel. As prophet and counsellor to kings he played an important role in the political and religious affairs of the Israelites, and his writings and prophecies helped to shape their religious and cultural identity.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES

1) GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Alter, R. (2009). The David Story: A Translation with Commentary of 1 and 2 Samuel. W. W. Norton & Company.

Alter, R. (2013). Ancient Israel : the Former Prophets : Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings : a Translation with Commentary. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Anderson, A. A. (1989). 2 Samuel. Paternoster.

‌Auld, A. G. (2011). I & II Samuel : a Commentary. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press.

‌Baretz, J. (2015). The Bible on Location. U of Nebraska Press.

Barron, R. (2017). 2 Samuel. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Brazos Press, A Division Of Baker Publishing Group.

‌Brenner, A (1994). A Feminist Companion to Samuel and Kings. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.

Beal, L. W. (2014). 1 & 2 Kings. InterVarsity Press.

Brueggemann, W. (2000). 1 & 2 Kings. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans.

‌Brueggemann, W. (2012). First and Second Samuel. Louisville, Kentucky: John Knox Press.

Cartledge, T.W. (2001). 1 & 2 Samuel. Macon, Ga.: Smyth & Helwys Pub.

Chisholm, R.B. (2013). 1 and 2 Samuel. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books.

Franke, J. R. and Oden, T. C. (2014). Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1-2 Samuel. InterVarsity Press.

Fox, E. (2014). The Early Prophets : Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings : a New Translation with Introductions, Commentary, and Notes. New York: Schocken Books.

Galil, G. Levwinson-Gilboa, E. Maeir, A. M. and Kahn, D. (2012). The Ancient Near East in the 12th-10th centuries BCE : Culture and History : proceedings of the international conference, held at the University of Haifa, 2-5 May, 2010. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag.

Gordon, R.P. (1984). 1 & 2 Samuel. Sheffield: JSOT.

‌Huffmon, H. B. (2008). A Tale of the Prophet and the Courtier: A Responsive Reading of the Nathan Texts. In S. Dolansky (Ed.), Sacred History, Sacred Literature: Essays on Ancient Israel, the Bible, and Religion in Honor of R. E. Friedman on His Sixtieth Birthday (pp. 33–42). Penn State University Press.

Japhet, S. (2009). Kingship. In The Ideology of the Book of Chronicles and Its Place in Biblical Thought  (pp. 308–383). Penn State University Press.

Jones, G.H. (1990). The Nathan Narratives. Sheffield: Jsot Press.

Laffey, A. L. (1988). An Introduction to the Old Testament : a Feminist Perspective. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.

‌Lamb, D.T. (2021). 1–2 Kings. Zondervan Academic.

Lipinski, E. (2020). JERUSALEM IN THE BRONZE AGE AND IRON AGE I. In A History of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and Judah (Vol. 287, pp. 7–26). Peeters Publishers.

McKenzie, S. L. (2000). King David : a Biography. New York: Oxford University Press.

‌McShane, A. (1990). Lessons for Leaders. John Ritchie Ltd. Kilmarnock

McShane, A. (2002). I & II Kings. John Ritchie Ltd. Kilmarnock

MacLeod, F. (2016). 1 & 2 Kings: A Devotional Look at the Kings of Israel and Judah. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.

Mann, T. W. (2011). 2 Samuel. In The Book of the Former Prophets (1st ed., pp. 171–242). The Lutterworth Press.

‌Nelson, C. M. (1982). 1 & 2 Kings, Interpretation : a Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching, Old Testament. Atlanta: John Knox Press.

Newsome, J.D. (1982). 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel. Atlanta (Ga.): Knox Pr.

Peters, F. E. (1985). Holy Land, Holy City. In Jerusalem: The Holy City in the Eyes of Chroniclers, Visitors, Pilgrims, and Prophets from the Days of Abraham to the Beginnings of Modern Times (pp. 3–41). Princeton University Press.

Petroelje, S.L. (2012). Discover 2 Samuel. Faith Alive Christian Resources

Rosenberg, J. (1986). King and Kin : Political Allegory in the Hebrew Bible. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

‌Rossier, H.L. (2015). Meditations on 1 Kings. Irving Risch.

Rossier, H.L. (2015). Meditations on 2 Samuel. Irving Risch.

Segal, A. F. (2012). No Peace in the Royal Family. In Sinning in the Hebrew Bible: How The Worst Stories Speak for Its Truth (pp. 180–221). Columbia University Press.

Taylor, W. M. (1875). David, King of Israel: His Life and its Lessons, New York: Harper & Brothers

Willis, J. T., Graham P. M., Marrs, R. R. and Mckenzie, S. L. (1999). Worship and the Hebrew Bible : Essays in Honour of John T. Willis. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press.

Witherington, B. (2014). Courting the Prophets: Prophets and the Early Monarchy. In Jesus the Seer: The Progress of Prophecy (pp. 62–103). 1517 Media.

Woodhouse, J. and Hughes, R.K. (2015). 2 Samuel : Your Kingdom Come. Wheaton, Illinois: Crossway.

‌JOURNAL ARTICLES

Bishop, E. F. F. (1935). Why ‘Son of David’?. The Expository Times, 47(1), pp.21–25.

Bodner, K. (2001). Nathan: Prophet, Politician and Novelist? Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, 26(1), pp.43–54.

Bosworth, D. A. (2006). Evaluating King David: Old Problems and Recent Scholarship. CBQ, 68(2), pp. 191–210.

Bowman, J. (1989). David, Jesus Son of David and Son of Man. Ancient Near Eastern Studies, 27(0), pp.1–22.

Brown, R. M. (1984). The Nathan Syndrome: Stories with a Moral Intention. Religion & Literature, 16 (1), pp. 49–59.

Haran, M. (1999). The Books of the Chronicles ‘of the Kings of Judah’ and ‘of the Kings of Israel’: What Sort of Books were they?. Vetus Testamentum, 49(2), pp.156–164.

Harper, W. R. (1904). Constructive Studies in the Prophetic Element in the Old Testament. IV. Prophecy and Prophetism during the Davidic Period. The Biblical World, 24(1), pp. 47–58.

Harrington, D. J. (1991). ‘Jesus, the Son of David, the Son of Abraham …’; Christology and Second Temple Judaism. Irish Theological Quarterly, 57(3), pp.185–195.

Kalimi, I. (2016). Reexamining 2 Samuel 10-12: Redaction History versus Compositional Unity. CBQ, 78(1), pp. 24–46.

Kingsbury, J.D. (1976). The Title ‘Son of David’ in Matthew’s Gospel. Journal of Biblical Literature, 95(4), p.591.

Levin, Y. (2006). Jesus, ‘Son of God’ and ‘Son of David’: The ‘Adoption’ of Jesus into the Davidic Line. Journal for the Study of the New Testament, 28(4), pp.415–442.

Pagani, S. (2017). « Roi ou serviteur » ? La tentation du Prophète, ou le choix d’un modèle. Archives de Sciences Sociales Des Religions, 62(178), pp.43–68.

Reich, K.H. (2003). Teaching Genesis: A Present‐Day Approach Inspired by the Prophet Nathan. Zygon®, 38(3), pp .633–641.

Smith, S.H. (1996). The Function of the Son of David Tradition in Mark’s Gospel. New Testament Studies, 42(4), pp.523–539.

Van der Bergh, R. H. (2008) Deadly Traits: A Narratological Analysis of Character in 2 Samuel 11. Old Testament Essays, 21, pp.180-192.

Wantaate, F. (2019), Nathan as a Courageous Follower: An Inner Texture Analysis of 2 Samuel:1-14, American Journal of Biblical Theology, Vol. 19 (10)

2) BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR 2 Samuel 7:1-29 & 1 Chron 17:1-27 A ‘HOUSE’ FOR GOD AND A ‘HOUSE’ FOR DAVID.

BOOKS

Avioz, M. (2006). Nathan’s Oracle (2 Samuel 7) and its Interpreters. Bern ; Oxford: Peter Lang.

Eslinger, L. (1994). House of God or House of David. Sheffield Academic Press.

Janthial, D. (2013). L’oracle de Nathan et l’unité du livre d’Isaïe. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

Knoppers G. N. (2007). ‘Changing History: Nathan’s Oracle and the Structure of the Davidic Monarchy in Chronicles’, In M. Bar-Asher et al (eds), Shai le-Sara Japhet: Studies in the Bible, its Exegesis and its Language, (pp. 99-123). Jerusalem: The Bialik Institute

MacDonald, N. (2015). Covenant and Election in Exilic and Post-Exilic Judaism. Tübingen, Germany, Mohr Siebeck.

Schniedewind, W.M. (1999). Society and the Promise to David : the Reception History of 2 Samuel 7:1-17. New York: Oxford University Press.

JOURNAL ARTICLES

Avioz, M. (2004). Nathan’s Prophecy in II Sam 7 and in I Chr 17: Text, Context, and Meaning. Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 116(4). pp. 542-554

Avioz, M. (2006). Josephus’ Retelling of Nathan’s Oracle (2 Samuel 7). Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, 20(1), pp. 9–17.

‌Cudworth, T.D. (2016). Yahweh’s Promise to David in the Books of Kings. Vetus Testamentum, 66(2), pp.194–216.

Johnston, G. H. (2011). The Nature of the Davidic Covenant in the Light of Intertextual Analysis. A Paper Presented to the Old Testament Narrative Literature Study Group National Meeting of the Evangelical Theological Society: San Francisco.

Knoppers, G. N. (1996). Ancient Near Eastern Royal Grants and the Davidic Covenant: A Parallel? Journal of the American Oriental Society, 116(4), pp. 670–697.

Kruse, H. (1985). David’s Covenant. Vetus Testamentum, 35(2), pp. 139–164.

Mroczek, E. (2015). How Not to Build a Temple: Jacob, David, and the Unbuilt Ideal in Ancient Judaism. Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period, 46(4/5), pp. 512–546.

Phillips, A. (1966). The Interpretation of 2 Samuel xii 5-6. Vetus Testamentum, 16 (2), pp.242–244.

Sergi, O. (2010). The Composition of Nathan’s Oracle to David (2 Samuel 7:1–17) as a Reflection of Royal Judahite Ideology. Journal of Biblical Literature, 129(2), pp. 261–279.

Ttsevat, M. (1963). STUDIES IN THE BOOK OF SAMUEL: III The Steadfast House: What Was David Promised in II Sam. 7:11b—16? Hebrew Union College Annual, 34, 71–82.

Tsevat, M. (1965). The House of David in Nathan’s Prophecy. Biblica, 46(3), pp. 353–356.

Tsumura, D. T. (2010). Tense and Aspect of Hebrew Verbs in 2 Samuel 7:8-16—from the Point of View of Discourse Grammar. Vetus Testamentum, 60 (4), pp. 641–654.

Zimran, Y. (2014). “The Covenant Made with David”: The King and the Kingdom in 2 Chronicles 21. Vetus Testamentum, 64 (2), pp. 305–325.

‌3) BIBLIOGRAPGY FOR 2 Samuel 12:1-25 NATHAN, DAVID, BATHSHEBA AND URIAH

BOOKS

Afoakwah, J. D. (2015). The Nathan-David confrontation (2 Sam 12:1-15a) : a Slap in the Face of the Deuteronomistic Hero? New York: Peter Lang Edition.

Boda, M.J. (2021). A Severe Mercy : Sin and Its Remedy in the Old Testament. University Park, PA: Penn State University Press.

Karras, R. M. (2021). I Have Sinned Against the Lord: Sex and Penitence. In Thou Art the Man: The Masculinity of David in the Christian and Jewish Middle Ages (pp. 101–135). University of Pennsylvania Press.

McLaughlin, J. L. (2021). ‘Collateral Damage: Divine Punishment of Others for David’s Sins in 2 Samuel.’ In J. L. McLaughlin & C. Carvalho (Eds.), God and Gods in the Deuteronomistic History (pp. 143–159). Catholic University of America Press.

Koenig, S. M. (2018). Bathsheba Survives. University of South Carolina Press.

Mohammed, K. (2015). David in the Muslim tradition : the Bathsheba affair. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books.

Salisbury, J.E. (2001). Encyclopedia of Women in the Ancient World. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Abc-Clio.

‌The (2019). LIFE Women of the Bible. Time.

Widmer, M. (2015). David: Repentant Sinner, Priestly Intercessor, and Yhwh’s Change of Mind (2 Samuel 24). In Standing in the Breach: An Old Testament Theology and Spirituality of Intercessory Prayer (Vol. 13, pp. 224–250). Penn State University

JOURNAL ARTICLES

Abasili, A. I. (2011). Was it Rape? The David and Bathsheba Pericope Re-examined. Vetus Testamentum, 61(1), pp.1–15.

Berger, Y. (2009). Ruth and the David—Bathsheba Story: Allusions and Contrasts. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, 33(4), pp. 433–452.

Berman, J. (2013). Double Meaning in the Parable of the Poor Man’s Ewe (2 Sam 12:1–4). Journal of Hebrew Scriptures, Vol. 13. Article 14.

Buford, M. A. (2009). The Nathan Factor: The Art of Speaking Truth to Power. Journal of Biblical Perspectives in Leadership, 2(2), 95-113.

Cohen, H.H. (1965). David and Bathsheba. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, XXXIII(2), pp.142–148.

Daube, D. (1982). Nathan’s Parable. Novum Testamentum, 24(3), 275–288.

Dorn, L. O. (1999). Untranslatable Features in the David and Bathsheba Story (2 Samuel 11–12). The Bible Translator, 50(4), pp. 406–411.

Firth, D. (2008). David and Uriah (With an Occasional Appearance by Uriah’s Wife) – Reading and Re-Reading 2 Samuel 11. 21. Old Testament Essays, 20/2, pp. 310-328

Garsiel, M. (1993). The Story of David and Bathsheba: A Different Approach. CBQ, 55(2), pp. 244–262

Jacobs, J. (2013). The Death of David’s Son by Bathsheba (II Sam 12:13-25): A Narrative in Context. Vetus Testamentum, 63(4), pp. 566–576.

Lasine, S. (1984). Melodrama as Parable: The Story of the Poor Man’s Ewe-Lamb and the Unmasking of David’s Topsy-Turvy Emotions. Research affiliated with Wichita State University

‌Létourneau, A. (2018). Beauty, Bath and Beyond: Framing Bathsheba as a Royal Fantasy in 2 Sam 11,1-5. Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, 32(1), pp.72–91.

Nicol G. G. (1998) David, Abigail and Bathsheba, Nabal and Uriah: Transformations within a Triangle, Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, 12 (1), pp. 130-145.

Schipper, J. (2007). Did David Overinterpret Nathan’s Parable in 2 Samuel 12:1-6? Journal of Biblical Literature, 126(2), pp. 383–391.

Van der Bergh, R. H. (2008). Is Bathsheba Guilty? The Septuagint’s Perspective. Journal for Semitics 17, no. 1 182-193.

4) BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR 1 Kgs 1:1-46; 4:5 SOLOMONS’S ACCESSION NARRATIVE

BOOKS

Finkelstein, I. and Silberman, N. A. (2007). David and Solomon. Simon and Schuster.

‌Kalimi, I. (2018). Writing and Rewriting the Story of Solomon in Ancient Israel. Cambridge University Press.

Miller, V. (2019). A King and a Fool?: The Succession Narrative as a Satire. Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill.

JOURNAL ARTICLES

Ball, E. (1977). The Co-Regency of David and Solomon (1 Kings I). Vetus Testamentum, 27(3), pp.268–279.

Frolov, S. (2002). Succession Narrative: A “Document” or a Phantom? Journal of Biblical Literature, 121(1), 81–104.

Langlamet, F. (1982). DAVID, FILS DE JESSÉ: UNE ÉDITION PRÉDEUTÉRONOMISTE DE L’« HISTOIRE DE LA SUCCESSION ». Revue Biblique (1946-), 89(1), pp. 5–47.

Willis, J., Pleffer, A., & Llewelyn, S. (2011). Conversation in the Succession Narrative of Solomon. Vetus Testamentum, 61(1), pp. 133–147.

Posted in General

SOME THINGS SAID TO BE ‘OF DAVID’ IN THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS

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King David is a towering figure in the Bible. His name (according to my search of a KJV Bible app) occurs 841 times in the Old Testament and 54 times in the New Testament. The following is a list of things that are said to be ‘of David:’

OLD TESTAMENT

House of David – 1 Sam 20:16; 2 Sam 3:1; 7:26; 1 Kgs 12:26; 13:2, 14:8; 2 Kgs 17:21; 1 Chron 17:24; 2 Chron 10:19; 21:7; Neh 12:37; Psa 122:5; Isa 7:2, 13; 22:22; Jer 21:12; Zech 12:7, 8, 10, 12; 13:1.

City of David – 2 Sam 5:7; 6:16; 1 Kgs 2:10; 3:1; 9:24; 11:27, 43; 14:31; 15:8, 24; 22:50; 2 Kgs 8:24; 9:28; 12:21; 14:20; 15:7; 15:38; 16:20; 1 Chron 11:5, 7; 13:3; 15:1, 29; 2 Chron 8:11; 9:31; 12:16; 14:1; 16:14; 21:1, 20; 24:16, 25;27:9; 32:5,30; 33;14; Neh 3:15; 12:37; Isa 22:9.

Days of David – 2 Sam 21:1; 1 Kgs 2:1.

Throne of David – 1 Kgs 2:12, 24; Isa 9:7.

Statutes of David – 1 Kgs 3:3.

Heart of David – 1 Kgs 8:17.

Sons of David – 1 Chron 3:1, 9.

Reign of David – 1 Chron 4:31.

Mercies of David – 2 Chron 6:42; Isa 55:3.

Order (legal decision) of David – 2 Chron 8:17.

Way(s) of David – 2 Chron 11:17; 34:2.

Lord God of David – 2 Kgs 20:5; 2 Chron 21:12.

Commandment (edict) of David – 2 Chron 29:25; 35:15.

Instruments of David – 2 Chron 29:26; Neh 12:36.

Words of David – 2 Chron 29:30.

Writing of David – 2 Chron 35:4.

Ordinance of David – Ezra 3:10.

Sepulchres of David – Neh 3:16.

Horn of David – Psa 132:17.

Tower of David – Song of Solomon 4:4.

Tabernacle of David – Isa 16:5; Amos 9:11.

Seed of David – Jer 33:22.

NEW TESTAMENT

Son of David – Mt 15:22; 20:30, 31; 21:9, 15; 22:42.

House of David – Lk 1:27.

City of David – Lk 2:11.

Seed of David – Jn 7:42; Rom 1:3; 2 Tim 2:8.

Mouth of David – Acts 1:16.

Mercies of David – Acts 13:34.

Tabernacle of David – Acts 15:16

Root of David – Rev 5:5; 22:16.

Offspring of David – Rev 22:16

Posted in General

THE MANNA POINTED TO JESUS CHRIST

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READING: Exodus 16:4, 14-18; Numbers 11:7-9; John 6:35, 41, 48, 51.

It was bread from heaven – divine source – heavenly: Exod 16:4; Neh 9:15; Jn 6:33, 35, 41, 48, 51

It was small in size – humanity, humility Exod 16:14

It was round in shape – eternity – Exod 16:14

It was white in colour – purity – Exod 16:31

It was sweet to the taste – Psa 34:8; 1 Pet 2:3-4

It was sufficient for all. – Exod 16: 16-18

Posted in Exposition

OUTLINE OF THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL

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The precise dates given throughout the book of Ezekiel show that his prophecies centred on a specific major event in the history of Judah, that is, the Fall of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. The book therefore divides into two main sections: prophecies relating to the ten years leading up to the Fall of Jerusalem ( chapters 1-32) and prophecies relating to time after the Fall of Jerusalem (chapters 33-48).

The material is arranged in five blocks:

PART 1 – EZEKIEL’S CALL TO THE PROPHETIC MINISTRY – CHAPTERS 1-3

1:1-3 – Introduction and superscription

1:4-28 – Vision of the glory of YHWH

2:1 – 3:27 – Ezekiel’s Commission

PART 2 – ORACLES OF WARNING TO ISRAEL AND JUDAH – CHAPTERS 4-24

4:1-5:4 – The siege of Jerusalem portrayed in symbolic acts

5:5 – 17 – A prophetic sermon directed against Jerusalem

6:1 – 7: 27 – A prophecy of judgement on the land of Israel

8:1 – 11:25 – A vision of God’s glory leaving the Temple

12:1 – 14:23 – False Prophets

15:1-8 – Jerusalem as a useless charred vine

16:1-63 – Jerusalem as Yahweh’s adulterous wife

17:1-24 – The allegory of two eagles and a vine

18:1-32 – Individual responsibility

19: 1-14 – A lament over the rulers of Israel

20: 1-49 – A review of Israel’s history

21:1-32 – The sword of destruction

22:1- 31 – Sinful Jerusalem

23:1-49 – Two unfaithful sisters

24:1-14 – Sayings on the cooking pot

24:15-27 – The death of Ezekiel’s wife

PART 3 – ORACLES AGAINST THE SURROUNDING NATIONS – CHAPTERS 25-32

25:1-7 – Against Ammon

25:8-11 – Against Moab

25:12-14 – Against Edom

25:15-17 – Against the Philistines

26:1 – 28: 19 – Against Tyre

28:20 -26 – Against Sidon

29:1 – 32:16 – Against Egypt

PART 4 – A MESSAGE OF HOPE AND RESTORATION -CHAPTERS 33-39

33:1-20 – The prophet as watchman

33:21-22 – News of the Fall of Jerusalem

33:23-29 – Prophecy against those who remained in Jerusalem

33:30-33 – God addresses Ezekiel: a prophet whose predictions had been fulfilled

34:1-31 – The false shepherds of Israel and the true shepherd

35:1-15 – Oracle against Edom

36:1-38 – Renewal promised to Israel

37:1 -14 – The valley of dry bones

37: 15-28 – Two sticks – reunification

38:1-39:29 – Oracle against Gog of Magog

PART 5 – THE NEW ISRAEL – CHAPTERS 40-48

40:1 – 43:12 – The vision of a new temple

43:13 – 46:24 – The worship in the new temple

47:1-12 – The life-giving river

47:13-48:35 – The Land and the City

Posted in Exposition

WELCOME TO THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL!

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Welcome to Ezekiel! What are today’s readers to make of this strange book, and of this weird prophet – someone who saw visions of fire, wheels and creatures with multiple wings and faces, and who shaved off his hair with a sword and did not mourn his own wife’s death? 

He was one of the writing prophets, men who were convinced that God spoke to them and through them. Their all-holy God controlled not just his own people but also the surrounding pagan nations and would definitely judge sin. Eventually, however, he would restore his people and all creation. When did they write?

These prophets were active for several centuries after the time of King Solomon. Following his death in 931 BCE the kingdom divided into two territories: Israel to the North and Judah in the South.

THE PRE-EXILIC PROPHETS

The prophets addressing Israel (and the approximate dates of their ministries) were;

Jonah c. 780 -753 BCE

Amos c. 765-753 BCE

Hosea c. 755-725 BCE

 In 722/721 BCE the Northern nation Israel was taken into captivity in Assyria and the Southern nation, Judah, continued as an independent state.

The early pre-exilic prophets in Judah were:

Micah c. 735-690 BCE

Isaiah c. 740-680 BCE

The late pre-exilic prophets in Judah were:

Nahum c. 630 BCE

Zephaniah c. 625 BCE

Habakkuk c. 607 BCE

Joel c. 590 BCE

Jeremiah c. 627-580 BCE

In 587/586 BCE the city of Jerusalem fell to the Babylonian army and there was a mass deportation of Jews to Babylon .

THE EXILIC PROPHETS

Obadiah ? c. 585 BCE – we do not know when he prophesied.

Ezekiel c. 593-571 BCE

Daniel c. 605-535 BCE

THE POST-EXILIC PROPHETS

Haggai 520 BCE

Zechariah c. 520-500 BCE

Malachi c 420 BCE

Daniel (Dan chp. 1) had been taken to Babylon in 605 BCE when Nebuchadnezzar invaded Judah under King Jehoiakim after defeating the Egyptians at the battle of Carchemish (see Jer 46.) Some years later (597 BCE), ten years before the fall of Jerusalem in 587 and the Exile, Nebuchadnezzar deported King Jehoiachin of Judah and ten thousand of the political and religious elite into captivity in Babylon. Ezekiel was one of those elite. 2 Kings 24:8-16:

8 Jehoiachin was eighteen years old when he began to reign, and he reigned in Jerusalem three months. And his mother’s name was Nehushta, the daughter of Elnathan of Jerusalem.

9 And he did that which was evil in the sight of the LORD, according to all that his father had done.

10 At that time the servants of Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came up against Jerusalem, and the city was besieged.

11 And Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came against the city, and his servants did besiege it.

12 And Jehoiachin the king of Judah went out to the king of Babylon, he, and his mother, and his servants, and his princes, and his officers: and the king of Babylon took him in the eighth year of his reign.

13 And he carried out thence all the treasures of the house of the LORD, and the treasures of the king’s house, and cut in pieces all the vessels of gold which Solomon king of Israel had made in the temple of the LORD, as the LORD had said.

14 And he carried away all Jerusalem, and all the princes, and all the mighty men of valour, even ten thousand captives, and all the craftsmen and smiths: none remained, save the poorest sort of the people of the land.

15 And he carried away Jehoiachin to Babylon, and the king’s mother, and the king’s wives, and his officers, and the mighty of the land, those carried he into captivity from Jerusalem to Babylon.

16 And all the men of might, even seven thousand, and craftsmen and smiths a thousand, all that were strong and apt for war, even them the king of Babylon brought captive to Babylon.

Ezekiel was therefore in exile in Babylon during the final siege and fall of Jerusalem. Although based far away in Babylon, he prophesied to the people living back in the homeland, Judah.

Ezekiel wrote in the first person throughout his long and complex book which is is grim and intimidating. He experienced strange visions and often dwelt on God’s wrath. The Book of Ezekiel, however, is quite easy to follow as it is highly organized and precise. The prophet records the dates of sixteen revelations and for eleven of those he gives the year, the month and the day (1:2; 8:1; 20:1; 24:1; 29:1; 29:17; 30:20; 31:1; 32:21; 33:21; 40:1).

Posted in Exposition

THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL – BIBLIOGRAPHY

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BOOKS

Adams, J, 1928, The Hebrew Prophets and Their Message for To-day, T & T Clark, Edinburgh

Anderson, L. 1997, They Smell Like Sheep, Howard Books, New York

Berry, B. 2022, Ezekiel’s Temple, Scripture Teaching Library, Northern Ireland

Biggs, C. R. 1996, The Book of Ezekiel, Epworth Press, London

Bishop, E. F. F. 1962, Prophets of Palestine, Lutterworth Press, Cambridge

Brueggemann, W. and Miller, P. 2000, Texts That Linger, Words That Explode, Fortress Press, Minneapolis

Carro, D., Poe, J. T., Zorzoli, R.O. and Mundo, E. 2009, Comentario Bíblico Mundo Hispano, Casa Bautista of Pubns, El Paso

Carvalho, C. L. and Niskanen, P. V. 2012, Ezekiel, Daniel, Volume 16 in New Collegeville Bible Commentary: Old Testament, Liturgical Press, Collegeville

Christman, A G. R., 2005 What Did Ezekiel See? Brill, Leiden

Cook, S. L. and Patton, C. 2004, Ezekiel’s Hierarchical World: Wrestling with a Tiered Reality, Brill, Boston

Craigie, P. C. 1983, Ezekiel in the Daily Study Bible, Saint Andrew Press, Edinburgh

Davidson, A. B. 1893. The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel, with Notes and Introduction, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Davis, E.F., 1989,  Swallowing the Scroll : Textuality and Dynamics of Discourse in Ezekiel’s Prophecy, The Almond Press, Sheffield

Davis, M. C. 2014, Living With The Glory Of The Lord: Ezekiel’s Prophecy, John Ritchie Ltd., Kilmarnock

Dempsey, C. J. 2000, The Prophets: a Liberation-Critical Reading, Fortress Press, Minneapolis

Eichrodt, W, 1970, Ezekiel: a Commentary in Old Testament Library, SCM Press, London

Ellison, H. E. 1958, Men Spake from God: Studies in the Hebrew Prophets, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids

Gaebelein, A. C. 1918, The Prophet Ezekiel: An Analytical Exposition, Fleming H. Revell Company, London

Gingrich, R. E. 2005, The Book of Ezekiel in Outline Form, Riverside Printing, Memphis,

Greenberg, M. 1983, Ezekiel 1-20 in The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries, Doubleday & Company, New York

Haran, M. 1985, Temples and Temple-service in Ancient Israel, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake

Heaton, E. W. 2001. The Old Testament Prophets: A Short Introduction, Oneworld Publications, London

Hewlett, H. C. 1962, The Companion of the Way, Moody Press, Chicago

Hoeck, A. and Manhardt, L. 2010, Ezekiel, Hebrews, Revelation in Come and See: Catholic Bible Study Series, Emmaus Road Publishing, Steubenville, Ohio

Jeffery, P. 2005, Opening Up Ezekiel’s Visions, Day One Publications, Leominster

Job, J, 1983, Watchman in Babylon: A Study Guide to Ezekiel, Paternoster Press, Exeter

Johnson, A. 1979, The Cultic Prophet and Israel’s Psalmody, University of Wales Press, Cardiff

Johnson, A. R. 1962. The Cultic Prophet in Ancient Israel, University of Wales Press, Cardiff

Johnson, D. 2010, A Commentary on the Book of Ezekiel, Darren Johnson

Kamionkowski , S. T. and Kim, W. (eds) 2010, Bodies, Embodiment, and Theology of the Hebrew Bible, T & T Clark International, New York

Kraus, H-J, 1966. Worship in Israel: A Cultic History of the Old Testament, Basil Blackwell, Oxford

‌Kutsko, J.F., 2000, Between Heaven and Earth : Divine Presence and Absence in the Book of Ezekiel, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake

Lang, B. 1983. Monotheism and the Prophetic Minority: An Essay in Biblical History and Sociology (Social World of Biblical Antiquity No. 1), Sheffield Academic Press

Legge, D. 2001, Ezekiel: A Study of His Book, Preach The Word, Portadown

Levine, B. A. 1997. In the Presence of the Lord: A Study of Cult and Some Cultic Terms in Ancient Israel (Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity). Brill Academic, Leiden

Lucas, E. 2002, Ezekiel: A Bible Commentary for Every Day in The People’s Bible Commentary Series, The Bible Reading Fellowship, Oxford

McKeating, H. 1995. Ezekiel, Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield

Matties, G. 1990, Ezekiel 18 and the Rhetoric of Moral Discourse, Scholars Press, Atlanta

‌Melvin, D.P., 2013,  The Interpreting Angel Motif in Prophetic and Apocalyptic Literature. Fortress Press, Minneapolis

Moughtin, S. 2008, Sexual and Marital Metaphors in Hosea, Jeremiah, Isaiah, and Ezekiel, Oxford University Press

Olley, J. W. 2009, Ezekiel: A Commentary Based on Iezekiēl in Codex Vaticanus, Brill, Leiden

Patmore, H.M.,  2012, Adam, Satan, and the King of Tyre, Brill., Leiden

Prévost, J. 1997, How to read the Prophets, Continuum, New YorkPower, B. A, 2000, Iconographic Windows to Ezekiel’s World, National Library of Canada, Ottawa

Renz, T. 1999, The Rhetorical Function of the Book of Ezekiel, Brill, Leiden

Riddle, J. 2022, Ezekiel: Coming Back from Exile, John Ritchie Ltd., Kilmarnock

Robinson, T. H. 1948, Prophecy and Prophets in Ancient Israel, Duckworth, London

Rofé, A. 1997, Introduction to the Prophetic Literature, Sheffield Academic Press

Rowley, H. H. 2010. Worship in Ancient Israel: Its Forms and Meaning, Wipf & Stock, Eugene, Oregon

Ruiz, A. and Asurmendi, J. M. 1990,  Ezequiel, Editorial Verbo Divino, Navarra

Ruthven, J. M. 2003, The Prophecy That is Shaping History: New Research on Ezekiel’s Vision of the End, Xulon Press, Fairfax

Sanford, W., Hubbard, D. A., Bush, F. W. and Allen, L. C., 1996,  Old Testament Survey : the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament, W.B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids

Sawyer, J. F. A, 1993. Prophecy and the Biblical Prophets, Oxford University Press

Strine, C.A., 2013, Sworn Enemies: the Divine Oath, the Book of Ezekiel, and the Polemics of Exile,Walter de Gruyter, Berlin

Taylor, J. B. 1984, Ezekiel in Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, Inter-Varsity Press, Leicester

‌Tooman, W.A., 2011, Gog of Magog: Reuse of Scripture and Compositional Technique in Ezekiel 38–39, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen

Toy, C. H. 1899, The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel: A New English Translation with Explanatory Notes and Pictorial Illustrations, Dodd, Mead and Company, New York

Vaughan, P. H. 1974. The Meaning of ‘Bama’ in the Old Testament: A Study of Etymological, Textual and Archaeological Evidence, Cambridge University Press.

Von Rad, G. 1972. The Message of the Prophets, Harper & Row Publishers, New York

Westermann, C. 1991, Basic Forms of Prophetic Speech, Westminster John Knox Press, Cambridge

Wood, A. 2008,  Of Wings and Wheels: A Synthetic Study of the Biblical Cherubim (Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Bd. 385). De Gruyter, Berlin

‌Yee, G.A., Page, H.R. and Coomber, M.J.M., 2016,  The Prophets: Fortress Commentary on the Bible Study Edition. Augsburg Fortress, Minneapolis

JOURNAL ARTICLES

Ackerman, S. 1989, ‘A Marzēaḥ in Ezekiel 8:7-13?’, The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 82, No. 3, pp. 267-281

Adams, S. L. 2008, ‘Between Text and Sermon: Ezekiel 34: 11-19’, Interpretation, Vol. 62, No. 3, pp. 304-306

Alexander, R. H. 1974, ‘A Fresh Look at Ezekiel 38 and 39’, Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, Vol. 17, No. 3, p. 932

Allen, L. C. 1989, ‘The Rejected Sceptre in Ezekiel XXI 15b, 18a.’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 29, No.1, pp. 67-71

Allen, L. C. 1992, ‘The Structuring of Ezekiel’s Revisionist History Lesson (Ezekiel 20:3-31)’, CBQ, Vol. 54, No. 3, pp. 448-462

Allen, L. C. 1993, ‘The Structure and Intention of Ezekiel 1’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 43, No. 2, pp. 145-161

Almalech, M. 2005, ‘Contextual Aspects of the Saying for the Boiling Pot – Ezekiel 24’, paper presented at the 11th International Early Fall School in Semiotics at Southeast Europe Centre for Semiotic Studies, New Bulgarian University, Sofia

Ameisenowa, Z. 1949, ‘Animal-Headed Gods, Evangelists, Saints and Righteous Men’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 12, pp. 21-45

Arbel, D. 2005, ‘Questions about Eve’s Iniquity, Beauty, and Fall: The “Primal Figure” in Ezekiel 28:11-19 and “Genesis Rabbah” Traditions of Eve’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 124, No. 4, pp. 641-655

Astour, M. 1976, ‘Ezekiel’s prophecy of Gog and the Cuthean Legend of Naram-Sin’, Journal of Biblical Literature, pp. 567-579

Barrick, W. B. 1982, ‘The Straight-Legged Cherubim of Ezekiel’s Inaugural Vision (Ezekiel 1:7a)’, CBQ, Vol. 44, pp. 543-550

Barrick, W. D. 2007, ‘Eternal Security and Perseverance: Ezekiel 33:12-19, Testamentum Imperium, Vol. 1.

Barrick, W. D. 2007, ‘Ezekiel 33:12-19 and Eternal Security’, paper presented at Evangelical Theological Society, Far West Region Annual Meeting, 20 April.

Berry, G. R. 1915, ‘The Authorship of Ezekiel 40-48’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 17-40

Berry, G. R. 1932, ‘The Title of Ezekiel (1:1-3)’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 54-57

Berry, G. R. 1937, ‘The Glory of Yahweh and the Temple’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 56, No. 2, pp. 115-117

Berry, G, R. 1939, ‘The Composition of the Book of Ezekiel’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 58, No. 2, pp. 163-175

Bevan A. A. 1903, ‘The King of Tyre in Ezekiel XXVIII’, Journal of Theological Studies, Vol. 16, pp. 500-505

Block, D. I. 1987, ‘Gog and the Pouring out of the Spirit: Reflections on Ezekiel XXXIX 21-9’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 37, No. 3. pp. 257-270

Block, D. I. 1988, ‘Text and Emotion: A Study in the “Corruptions” in Ezekiel’s Inaugural Vision (Ezekiel 1:4-28)’, CBQ, Vol. 50, pp. 418-442

Block, D. I. 1991, ‘Ezekiel’s Boiling Cauldron: A Form-Critical Solution to Ezekiel XXIV 1-14’,Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 41, No. 1, pp. 12-37

Block, D. I, 1992, ‘Beyond the Grave: Ezekiel’s Vision of Death and Afterlife’, Bulletin for Biblical Research’, Vol. 2, pp. 113-141

Block, D. I. 1992, ‘Gog in Prophetic Tradition: A New Look at Ezekiel XXXVIII 17’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 42, No. 2, pp.154-172

Blumenthal, D. R. 1979, ‘Ezekiel’s Vision Seen Through the Eyes of a Philosophic Mystic’, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 47, No. 3, pp. 417-227

Boadt, L. 1975, ‘The A: B: B: A Chiasm of Identical Roots in Ezekiel’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 25, No.4, pp. 693-699

Bowen, N. R. 1999, ‘The Daughters of Your People: Female Prophets in Ezekiel 13:17-23’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 118, No. 3, pp. 417-433

Bewer, J. A. 1926, ‘On the Text of Ezekiel 7:5-14’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 45, No. 3/4, pp. 223-231

Brownlee, W. H. 1950, ‘Exorcising the Souls from Ezekiel 13:17-23’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 69, No. 4, pp. 367-373

Brownlee, W.H. 1958, ‘Ezekiel’s Poetic Indictment of the Shepherds’, The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 51, No. 4, pp. 191-203

Brownlee, W. H. 1978, ‘Ezekiel’s Parable of the Watchman and the Editing of Ezekiel’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 392-408

Bunta, S. N. 2007, ‘Yhwh’s Cultic Statue after 597/586 B.C.E.: A Linguistic and Theological Reinterpretation of Ezekiel 28:12’, CBQ, Vol. 69, pp. 223-241

Chapman, C. R. 2007, ‘Sculpted Warriors: Sexuality and the Sacred in the Depiction of Warfare in the Assyrian Palace Reliefs and in Ezekiel 23:14-17’, Lectio Difficilior, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 1-19

Christman, A. R. 1999, “What Did Ezekiel See?” – Patristic Exegesis of Ezekiel 1 and Debates about God’s Incomprehensibility’, Pro Ecclesia, Vol. VIII, No. 3, pp. 338-363

Crouch, C. L. 2011, ‘Ezekiel’s Oracles against the Nations in Light of a Royal Ideology of Warfare’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 130, No. 3, pp 473–492

Coxhead, S. 2008, ‘John Calvin’s Interpretation of Works Righteousness in Ezekiel 18’, The Westminster Theological Journal, Vol. 70, No.2, pp.303-316

Daiches, S. 1905, ‘Ezekiel and the Babylonian Account of the Deluge’, The Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 441-455

Darr, K. P. 1987, ‘The Wall around Paradise: Ezekielian Ideas about the Future’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 37, No. 3, pp. 271-279

Day, L. 2000, ‘Rhetoric and Domestic Violence in Ezekiel 16’, Biblical Interpretation, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 205-230

Day, P. L. 2000. ‘The Bitch Had It Coming to Her: Rhetoric and Interpretation in Ezekiel 16’, Biblical Interpretation, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 231–254

Day, P. L. 2000, ‘Adulterous Jerusalem’s Imagined Demise: Death of a Metaphor in Ezekiel XVI’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. L, No. 3, pp. 285-309

Dean, J. 1927, ‘The Date of Ezekiel 40-43’, The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. 43, No.3, pp. 231-233

Dever, M. 1998, ‘A Vision of God Ezekiel 1:1–20’, Southern Baptist Journal of Theology, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 16-23

Dressler, H. H. P. 1979, ‘The Identification of the Ugaritic DNIL with the Daniel of Ezekiel’, Vetus Testamentum, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 152-161

Driver, G. R. 1951, ‘Ezekiel’s Inaugural Vision’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 60-62

Foster, R. S. 1958, ‘A Note on Ezekiel XVII 1-10 and 22-24‘, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 374-379

Fredericks, D. C. 1998, ‘Diglossia, Revelation, and Ezekiel’s Inaugural Rite’, Journal of The Evangelical Theological Society, Vol. 41, No. 2, pp. 189-199

Ganzel, T. ‘The Defilement and Desecration of the Temple in Ezekiel’, Biblica, Vol. 89, No. 3, pp. 369-379

Ganzel, T. 2010, ‘The Descriptions of the Restoration of Israel in Ezekiel’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 60, pp. 197-211

Gardiner, F, 1881, ‘The Relation of Ezekiel to the Levitical Law’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol.1, pp. 172-205

Garfinkel, S. 1987, ‘Of Thistles and Thorns: a New Approach to Ezekiel II 6’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. XXXVII, No. 4, pp. 421-137

Gaster. T. H. 1941, ‘Ezekiel and the Mysteries’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 60, No. 3, pp. 289-310

Gehman, H. S. 1940, ‘The “Burden” of the Prophets’, The Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 107-121

Geyer, J. B. 1986, ‘Mythology and Culture in the Oracles against the Nations’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 129-145

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Lipton, D. 2006, ‘Early Mourning? Petitionary Versus Posthumous Ritual in Ezekiel xxiv.’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 56, No. 2, pp. 185-202

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MacKay, C. 1965, ‘Why Study Ezekiel 40–48?’, The Evangelical Quarterly, Vol. 37, No. 3, p. 155- 167

Mackay, C. 1968, ‘Zechariah in Relation to Ezekiel 40-48’, The Evangelical Quarterly, Vol. 40, No.4, pp. 197-210

McKenzie, J. L. 1956, ‘Mythological Allusions in Ezek 28:12-18’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 75, No. 4, pp. 322-327

Mein, A, 2007, ‘Profitable and Unprofitable Shepherds: Economic and Theological Perspectives on Ezekiel 34’, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 493-504

Morgan, D. M. 2010, ‘Ezekiel and the Twelve: Similar Concerns as an Indication of a Shared Tradition?’, Bulletin for Biblical Research, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 377-396

Moskala, J. 2007, ‘Toward the Fulfillment of the Gog and Magog Prophecy of Ezekiel 38-39’, Journal of the Adventist Theological Society, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 243-273

Moyer, C. J. 2011, ‘“What Do You See?” Verbalizing the Visual in Biblical Prophecy’, paper presented at the at the 2011 Society of Biblical Literature Meeting on Monday, November 21, San Francisco

Muller, R. A. 2009, ‘A Tale of Two Wills? Calvin and Amyraut on Ezekiel 18: 23’, Calvin Theological Journal, Vol. 44, pp. 211-225

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Odell, M. S. 1998, ‘You Are What You Eat: Ezekiel and the Scroll’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 117, No. 2, pp. 229-248

Odell, M. S. 1998, ‘The Particle and the Prophet: Observations on Ezekiel II 6’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 48, No. 3 (Jul., 1998), pp. 425-432

Olyan, S. 2009, ‘Unnoticed Resonances of Tomb Opening and Transportation of the Remains of the Dead in Ezekiel 37: 12-14’, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 128, No. 3, pp. 491-502

Osborne, R. 2011, ‘Elements of Irony: History and Rhetoric In Ezekiel 20:1-44’, Criswell Theological Review, Vol. 9, No.1, pp. 3-15

Phillips, A. 1980, ‘Uncovering the Father’s Skirt’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 38-43

Phinney, D. 2005, ‘The Prophetic Objection in Ezekiel Iv 14 and Its Relation To Ezekiel’s Call’, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 55, No. 1, pp. 75-88

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Posted in General

‘EBENEZER’

Posted on by writtenexposition

Closing message on our last Sunday with our church before moving to live elsewhere.

1 Samuel 7:12 ‘EBENEZER’

‘Then Samuel took a stone, and set it between Mizpeh and Shen, and called the name of it Ebenezer, saying, Hitherto hath the Lord helped us.’ 1 Samuel 7:12

There is a certain form of words occurring throughout our Bible which makes a very interesting study. I’ll mention the following example references:

Deuteronomy chapters 31-34 – the speaker is Moses.

Joshua chapters 23-24 – the speaker is Joshua.

1 Samuel chapter 12 – the speaker is Samuel.

1 Kings chapter 2 and also 1 Chronicles chapters 28 -29 – the speaker is David,

Luke chapter 22 and also John chapters 13-17 – the speaker is the Lord Jesus Christ.

Acts chapter 20 – the speaker is the apostle Paul.

You may have already realized that in these chapters we have what scholars term ‘THE FAREWELL ADDRESS.’

You will be relieved to know, although this is our last Sunday here, that I am not about to deliver a long farewell speech.

Instead I would like to leave this verse from 1 Samuel with you, not only because it is my favourite Bible verse but also because we have experienced, and can testify to, its truth. Today we look back over the 32 years since we walked in the door of the old building one Sunday morning in September 1989, with two small children in tow and not knowing anyone in this part of the world.

Ebenezer is an unusual name. Personally, I don’t know anyone called Ebenezer. Unless familiar with the Bible most people would probably recall it as the name of the miser Scrooge in Charles Dicken’s story, ‘A Christmas Carol’ – but Ebenezer Scrooge bears no relation to the Ebenezer of the Bible because:

The biblical Ebenezer was not a person, it was a place.

The biblical Ebenezer was not a scrooge, it was a stone.

The biblical Ebenezer was not a miser, it was a marker.

In 1 Samuel chapters 4-7 you can read for yourselves the historical background to Samuel’s erection of this stone monument. Sufficient to say that for a long period of time the ancient Israelites forgot God and had consequently suffered defeat at the hands of their neighbours, the Philistines. These enemies captured the Ark of the Lord, which was gone for twenty years (7:2). After a national turning to the Lord, however, and intercession on the part of Samuel, the Philistines were defeated. Samuel then set up the memorial stone as a reminder to the people of the faithfulness of God to those who trust in him alone.

As we review more than three decades spent here:

EBENEZER REMINDS US OF THE PAST

Looking back we recognise God’s help and protection in our lives. There have been many good times and some difficult times; there has been employment and also unemployment; there has been health and there has been sickness. However, we can honestly say: ‘Ebenezer …. Hitherto hath the Lord helped us.’ Had we set up a memorial stone for every occasion on which the Lord helped us there would be a long trail of gratitude behind us, stretching back over thirty-two years. As well as reminding us of the past…

EBENEZER DIRECTS US TO THE PRESENT

‘Hitherto’ means ‘up to now’ and that, of course, includes the present time. We can therefore be confident that the Lord who has helped us in the past is now helping us in the present. The One who HAS helped us is STILL helping us. As we undergo the stress of uprooting our lives and moving to one of the other countries in the UK ‘Ebenezer’ reminds us to be thankful for what the Lord is doing now.

Ebenezer reminds us of the past.

Ebenezer directs us to the present, but also:

EBENEZER POINTS US TO THE FUTURE

When we get to a certain point in time and can still say ‘hitherto’ that means that we haven’t reached the end yet. The Lord has more to do, for us and with us, and he will help us until our lives on earth come to a close. I suppose that as we contemplate the future we can change the ‘hitherto hath the Lord helped us’ to ‘henceforth the Lord will help us’.

Let me publicly pay tribute to all the members of this church (to the many who have already gone to be with the Lord, and to you all who remain) and thank you for your fellowship, your friendship, your kindness to us and your confidence in us as we have fulfilled our various roles and responsibilities in this assembly.

We brought up our children here and are thankful that, at a young age, both of them placed their trust in Jesus Christ for eternal salvation. Thank you for providing a loving and caring atmosphere in which we could raise our family and for being a positive Christian influence upon young lives.

We ask you to pray for us as we assume a nomadic lifestyle for a few months, that the Lord will guide us as to where we ought to settle down and live in retirement and that we might be of help in whatever assembly of Christians we meet with.

I trust that you all (individually and as an assembly of believers) will continue to experience the Lord’s help and blessing and be able to say, as we can: ‘Ebenezer …. hitherto hath the Lord helped us.’

Posted in Exposition

THE AARONIC BLESSING

Posted on by writtenexposition


‘The LORD bless thee, and keep thee: The LORD make his face shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee: The LORD lift up his countenance upon thee, and give thee peace.’ Numbers 6:24-26

INTRODUCTION

Recently I attended a wedding service during which the officiating minister delivered the Aaronic Blessing. I was intrigued by this pronouncement, in a 21st century CE Christian setting, of a liturgical blessing from the ancient Israelite cult. I therefore decided to look more closely at the scriptural occurrence of this benediction and seek to determine the original circumstances and meaning behind its use?

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The Aaronic Blessing appears in the book of Numbers which is the fourth of the first five books of the Old Testament (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy). These books are often referred to collectively as the Pentateuch, or as the Torah (law or instruction). The Aaronic blessing comes at the end of a large chunk of religious legislation extending from Leviticus 1:1 – Numbers 6: 27.

This cycle of instructions is mainly concerned with the holiness of YHWH (the Lord) and with the holiness of the Israelites as his chosen people. YHWH had revealed himself to the Israelites as their national god, had brought them out of slavery in Egypt (the Exodus) and had made a covenant with them at Sinai by which they obligated themselves to worship him exclusively. He had also delivered to Moses blueprints for the construction and erection of a portable shrine (known as the Tabernacle) dedicated to YHWH worship and had given detailed instructions for an associated cult (set of religious practices). The latter involved the institution of a priesthood and a sacrificial system. All of this had been successfully implemented as instructed by the time the book of Numbers opens.

At that point the Israelites are preparing to leave Sinai and travel through the wilderness to the Promised Land. Just as the community is about to set out on the journey Moses delivers instructions, specifically to the Aaronite priests, about a blessing. It draws attention to the good things that lie in store for YHWH’s covenant people; those who live their lives in accordance with his revealed word.

THE CONCEPT OF BLESSING

‘Bless’ and ‘blessing’ are common words in the Old Testament and in the culture of the time the concept carried various shades of meaning.

1. Blessing functioned as part of an everyday greeting similar to our modern ‘Hello!’ (see Ruth 2:4; Psa 129:8).

2. Blessing was regarded as having almost magical power to bestow future fertility, prosperity and security (see Gen 27:30-38).

3. Blessing often had God as the object and in these instances it conveyed gratitude and thanksgiving on the part of human beings (see Gen 24:27; Ex 18:10; Ruth 4:14; 1 Sam 25:32-33; 2 Sam 18:28; 1 Kgs 1:48; 5:7; 8:15, 56; 1 Chron 16:36; 2 Chron 2:12; 6:4 and various psalms e.g. Psa 28:6; 31:21). The emphasis is on God as the recipient of praise for blessings already received rather than as the giver of future blessings.

4. ‘Blessed’ was used to describe the situation of one who had already received good things, e.g. Psa 1:1

5. Blessing was used as part of religious worship as petition for the favour of the deity and perhaps also, in the case of the Aaronic Blessing, as a prayer for protection through death (e.g. the Ketef Hinnom amulets – see below).

Hagee (2012, p.27) comments:

‘When God blesses man it is to bestow good health, abundant success, and prosperity, both materially and spiritually. When man blesses God, it is presented in the forms of thanksgiving, reverence, obedience, praise and worship. When a man blesses his fellow believer, he recites the Priestly Blessing of Numbers 6:22-27…’

It is useful to note the important difference in emphasis between blessings already received and those wished for the future. One produces a beatitude, the other a benediction. The Aaronic Blessing is a benediction.

AN ANCIENT BENEDICTION

In 1979 two tiny silver scrolls were found during the excavation of a tomb at Ketef Hinnom near Jerusalem. Since they contain an abbreviation of this priestly blessing in miniature script it is generally thought that these were worn as amulets by the person buried there (possibly a priest). Dating from about the end of the seventh century BCE, these tiny silver sheets are now the oldest written portions of the Hebrew Bible in known existence, predating the Dead Sea Scrolls by three or four centuries.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE  PASSAGE

Following immediately upon the block of legislation dealing with Israel’s holiness, particularly that in Num 5-6 about holiness in the camp, comes this benediction which expresses a wish for the ideal situation; a state of harmony, security and prosperity for the Israelites, brought about by holiness.

6:22-23. The introduction to the blessing.

6:24-26 The wording of the blessing.

6: 27 The conclusion to the blessing.

THE INTRODUCTION TO THE AARONIC BLESSING

‘And the LORD spoke unto Moses, saying, Speak unto Aaron and unto his sons, saying, On this wise ye shall bless the children of Israel, saying unto them‘  Num 6:22-23

This introductory section emphasizes that the Lord himself initiated this blessing. YHWH (the Lord) is the author, Moses is the messenger and Aaron and his descendants are the mediators of the blessing. The revelation by YHWH to Moses specifies the blessing as part of a religious ritual that is to be invoked only by priests. These are weighty words that not just anyone can speak casually.

Deuteronomy makes it clear that blessing was one of the main functions of the Levitical priestly office (see also 1 Chron 23:23):

‘At that time the LORD separated the tribe of Levi, to bear the ark of the covenant of the LORD, to stand before the LORD to minister unto him, and to bless in his name, unto this day.’  Deut 10:8

‘And the priests the sons of Levi shall come near; for them the LORD thy God hath chosen to minister unto him, and to bless in the name of the LORD; and by their word shall every controversy and every stroke be tried:’ Deut 21:5

In Numbers 6, however, the message is even more specific: only the Aaronite priests can invoke this priestly blessing. The mediation of the blessing was a specific duty which was exclusive to a single group of priests authorised by YHWH.

We are not told when this blessing was first pronounced by Aaron but it may have been some time earlier when the priests began to exercise their ministry just after the inauguration of the Tabernacle and the priesthood. According to Lev 9:22:

‘And Aaron lifted up his hand toward the people, and blessed them, and came down from offering of the sin offering, and the burnt offering, and peace offerings.’

What Aaron said on that occasion is not divulged nor is there mention of the lifting of the hand in Num 6, but perhaps the wording of that first blessing matched what is recorded here in Numbers 6:24-26.

The particle ‘thus’ (translated ‘on this wise’ in the KJV) specifies that the blessing must be given exactly in the form and wording prescribed by YHWH.

THE WORDING OF THE AARONIC BLESSING

‘The LORD bless thee, and keep thee:
The LORD make his face shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee:
The LORD lift up his countenance upon thee, and give thee peace.’

This formal request to God for the granting of prosperity, fertility and success to the Israelites consists of three lines each having two clauses and containing two verbs.

bless         keep

shine         be gracious

lift              give

The verbs call for six related actions on the part of YHWH in order that this favourable situation for his people might be achieved.

YHWH appears as the first word in each line and is therefore explicitly the subject of the first clause in each line. He is also implicitly the subject of the second clause in each line. The placement of YHWH at the beginning of each line is for emphasis, as grammatically the threefold repetition is unnecessary. This stresses that although the benediction is spoken by the priests it is the Lord who issues the blessing. This rules out the possibility that blessing can come from another source e.g. the priests or false deities.

Some equate the threefold mention of ‘the Lord’ with the Holy Trinity (Father, Psa 110:1; Jesus, Rom 10:9; Holy Spirit, 2 Cor 3:17) and link the Aaronic Blessing with the Apostolic Benediction ‘The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of God, and the communion of the Holy Ghost, be with you all. Amen.’ in 2 Cor 13:14.

Scholars see great literary accomplishment in the Hebrew. Each of the three lines is longer than the one before thus, it is thought, illustrating the increasing flow of God’s blessings. In the original the lines have 3, 5 and 7 words which is a regular sequence of odd numbers. The number of consonants in the lines is 15, 20 and 25 which is a sequence by five. The number of syllables is 12, 14 and 16.

The pronouns throughout the blessing are singular. The KJV clearly shows that they are second person singular by the use of  ‘thee’, e.g. ‘The Lord bless thee and keep thee’. Although singular, and therefore referring to each individual Israelite, this is a collective singular similar to that in the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:2-17: Deut 5:6-21), e.g ‘Thou shalt, thou shalt not’, so the import is wide.

Although one could hardly describe the relationship between YHWH and his Old Testament worshippers as intimate yet the use of second person singular pronouns emphasizes that it was personal. By blessing individuals YHWH blessed the people as a whole, by blessing the people as a whole (collective sense) he blessed individuals.

There is some discussion as to whether the blessing contains six petitions or three. The general opinion seems to be that there are three. That assumes that the verbs are in pairs. The first clause of each line is a call for YHWH to act towards the Israelites, the second clause has to do with his activity on their behalf in response to that call.

The last part of each line can be taken as expanding or explaining the request in the first part (i.e. it is epexegetical).

Some suggest that the Lord blesses by keeping (protecting), the Lord makes his face to shine by being gracious and that he lifts up his countenance thereby giving peace.

The last part of each line may be regarded as giving the consequent action of God to the request in the first part, i.e. it is the result.

The verbs in the Aaronic Blessing

BLESS

bāraḵ: to bless, kneel, salute, greet. Its derived meaning is to bless someone or something.

Blessing in the Old Testament had little to do with spirituality but more to do with material benefits. The first biblical mention of blessing in Gen 1:28 shows that it has to do with productivity (offspring), prosperity, empowerment and personal physical security. Deuteronomy 28:1-14  (which is also in the second person singular) gives a list of blessings that an obedient worshipper of YHWH might expect to receive:

28:3 Blessed shalt thou be in the city, and blessed shalt thou be in the field.

28:4 Blessed shall be the fruit of thy body, and the fruit of thy ground, and the fruit of thy cattle, the increase of thy kine, and the flocks of thy sheep.

28:5 Blessed shall be thy basket and thy store.

28:6 Blessed shalt thou be when thou comest in, and blessed shalt thou be when thou goest out.

28:7 The LORD shall cause thine enemies that rise up against thee to be smitten before thy face: they shall come out against thee one way, and flee before thee seven ways.

28:8 The LORD shall command the blessing upon thee in thy storehouses, and in all that thou settest thine hand unto; and he shall bless thee in the land which the LORD thy God giveth thee.

28:11 And the LORD shall make thee plenteous in goods, in the fruit of thy body, and in the fruit of thy cattle, and in the fruit of thy ground, in the land which the LORD swore unto thy fathers to give thee.

28:12 The LORD shall open unto thee his good treasure, the heaven to give the rain unto thy land in his season, and to bless all the work of thine hand: and thou shalt lend unto many nations, and thou shalt not borrow.

28:13 And the LORD shall make thee the head, and not the tail; and thou shalt be above only, and thou shalt not be beneath;…

KEEP

šāmar: to watch, to keep, to preserve, to guard, to be careful, to watch over.

This word is used of men guarding, protecting or tending (e.g Gen 2:15; Isa 21:11-12) and of YHWH keeping covenant (e.g. 1Kgs 8:23-25). This request in the Aaronic Benediction is for protection by YHWH against any force, human or spiritual, that would disrupt or destroy the blessing once received by his people.

Psalm 121, in which šāmar occurs several times, is a meditation on YHWH’s vigilance (‘neither slumber nor sleep’) and his preservation of his people. He is a divine security guard.

I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills, from whence cometh my help. My help cometh from the LORD, which made heaven and earth. He will not suffer thy foot to be moved: he that keepeth thee will not slumber. Behold, he that keepeth Israel shall neither slumber nor sleep. The LORD is thy keeper: the LORD is thy shade upon thy right hand. The sun shall not smite thee by day, nor the moon by night. The LORD shall preserve thee from all evil: he shall preserve thy soul. The LORD shall preserve thy going out and thy coming in from this time forth, and even forevermore.

SHINE

’ôr: to give light, to shine, to become light, make bright

Examples: Jonathan’s eyes brightened 1 Sam 14:27, 29; and Ezra 9:8 ‘that God may brighten our eyes’.

‘May YHWH make his face to shine in your direction’

This anthropomorphism which attributes human features to God indicates that God makes his presence known but the imagery of his face shining means much more. God is not only near but also friendly and his attitude is benevolent. He will give a positive and favourable reception. See also Psa 31:16; Psa 80:3, 7, 19.

Note: The opposite imagery of the shining face is that of hiding the face (e.g. Deut 31:18) which speaks of rejection.

Psalm 67, which is based on the Aaronic Blessing, is a meditation on ‘bless’ (vv. 1, 6, 7) but also includes the expression ’cause his face to shine upon us’ in v.1.

BE GRACIOUS

ḥānan: to be gracious toward, to favour, to have mercy on.

The idea here is that of God showing favour to his people. This is usually thought of as the action of a superior towards an inferior. There is not the distinction between grace and mercy that we have in the New Testament. The Septuagint (Greek Old Testament) translates ‘be gracious’ as ‘show mercy’. The prayer is that God might deal with his people in mercy, grace and deliverance from afflictions. Perhaps forgiveness of sins would be included as one of God’s gracious actions; judgement tempered with mercy.

At Sinai YHWH had revealed himself as ‘merciful and gracious’ but also held out the possibility of judgement:

And the LORD passed by before him, and proclaimed, The LORD, The LORD God, merciful and gracious, longsuffering, and abundant in goodness and truth, Keeping mercy for thousands, forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin, and that will by no means clear the guilty; visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children, and upon the children’s children, unto the third and to the fourth generation.

Unlike the above quotation from Exod 34:6-7 there is no mention of judgement in in the Aaronic blessing.

LIFT

nāśā’: to lift, to carry, to take away.

The ‘lifting up of the countenance toward’ literally ‘turn his face towards’ suggests that God is looking at and therefore paying attention to his people, smiling upon them with pleasure and affection.

GIVE

śiym: to put, to set, or to place, to appoint, to bring, to call, to put, to change, to charge, to commit, to consider, to convey, to determine.

The petition ends with a request for the Lord to grant šālôm (peace). ‘Peace’ does not just mean the absence of war but also carries the thought of unity, harmony, well-being, health, prosperity,wholeness, security and salvation.

THE CONCLUSION OF THE AARONIC BLESSING

And they shall put my name upon the children of Israel; and I will bless them. Num 6:27

Following the words of the Aaronic Blessing comes verse 27 which continues the instructions for blessing given by YHWH to Moses in vv. 22-23. The Septuagint places verse 27 at the end of verse 23. The verse concludes the section on the Aaronic Blessing and gives an insight into how it was viewd by the Lord.

‘and they shall put my name upon the children of Israel;‘ Does this refer to a further separate ritual that is not described here or back to the invocation of the Aaronic Blessing? Given that details of a different ritual are not supplied it seems most likely that YHWH regarded the invocation of the blessing by the Aaronite priests as a figurative act of putting his name upon the people.

As a ritual act the recitation of the Aaronic Blessing expressed the divine name (being and character) of the covenant-making and covenant-keeping God and reminded the Israelites that they belonged him.

The divine name reminded them of who he is – his character.

The divine name reminded them of what he had done – his works.

The divine name reminded them of what he had promised- his covenant.

As worshippers of an awe-inspiring, holy God they had to be holy as well. The pronouncement of the benediction did not provide an easy magic shortcut to blessing. They had to worship the Lord, obey him and walk in his ways, then blessing would follow. Whenever the blessing was asked for such people it would definitely be granted.

The blessing had to be requested by the Aaronite priests but it was not caused by them. The Lord alone could bless.

SUMMATION

As Christians today we can enjoy the principle enshrined in the Aaronic Blessing: that the Lord who has saved us and brought us into a relationship with himself can sustain us on our journey of life with blessings which are unmerited but graciously bestowed. It is our responsibility, as those who belong to him, to live holy lives.

‘But seek ye first the kingdom of God, and his righteousness; and all these things shall be added unto you.’ Mat 6:33

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Bailey, L. R., 2005. Leviticus-Numbers, Macon, GA: Smyth & Helwys

Bush, G., 1858. Notes, Critical and Practical, on the Book of Numbers: Designed as a General Help to Biblical Reading and Instruction, New York: Ivison & Whinney

Duguid, I. M. and Hughes, K. R., 2006. Numbers: God’s Presence in the Wilderness. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books.

Hagee J., 2012. The Power of the Prophetic Blessing, Brentwood, TH: Worthy Publishing

Martin, G. and Anders, M., 2002. Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers. Nashville, Tenn: Broadman & Holman.

North, G., 1996. Sanctions and Dominion: An Economic Commentary on Numbers, Tyler, TX: Inst for Christian Economics

Pitkänen, P., 2018. A Commentary on Numbers: Narrative Ritual and Colonialism. New York: Routledge

Swete, H. B., 1909, The Old Testament in Greek According to the Septuagint, Cambridge University Press

Rushdoony, J. R., 2006. Numbers, Vallecito, CA: Chalcedon/Ross House Books

van Kooten, G. H., 2007. The Revelation of the Name YHWH to Moses: Perspectives from Judaism, the Pagan Graeco-Roman World, and Early Christianity, Leiden: Brill.

JOURNAL ARTICLES

Cocco, F., 2007, La sonrisa de Dios. Los verbos de la bendición de Num 6,24-26, available at

https://www.academia.edu/9648468/La_sonrisa_de_Dios_Los_verbos_de_la_bendici%C3%B3n_de_Num_6_24_26

Cohen, C., 1993, The Biblical Priestly Blessing (Num. 6:24-26) in the Light of Akkadian Parallels, Tel Aviv, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 228-238

Fishbane, M., 1983, Form and Reformulation of the Biblical Priestly Blessing, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 103, No. 1, pp. 115–121.

Isaak, M. A., 1995, Literary Structure and Theology of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Three-fold Blessing, Direction Magazine, Vol. 24. No. 2 pp. 65-74

Martens, E., 2009, Intertext Messaging: Echoes of the Aaronic Blessing (Numbers 6:24-26), Direction Magazine, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 163-178

Miller, P. D., 1975. The Blessing of God, Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology, Vol. 29, No.3, pp.240-251

Ozolins, K., 2021. Artifact in Focus: The Ketef Hinnom Amulets, Ink Magazine, Issue 9, pp. 12-14

Yardeni, A., 1991. ‘Remarks on the Priestly Blessing on Two Ancient Amulets from Jerusalem.’ Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 41, No. 2, pp. 176–185

Posted in Exposition

KING JOSIAH OF JUDAH – BIBLIOGRAPHY

Posted on by writtenexposition

BOOKS

Amit, Y., 2006. Essays on Ancient Israel in its Near Eastern Context: A Tribute to Nadav Na’aman. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns

Barrick, W. B., 2002. The King And The Cemeteries: Toward A New Understanding Of Josiah’s Reform. Leiden: Brill

Barton, J. and Muddiman, J., 2007. The Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Beacon, R., 1892. Thoughts on 2 Chronicles, Addison, IL: Bible Truth Publishers

Blenkinsopp, J., 1986. Prophecy and Canon: A Contribution to the Study of Jewish Origins, Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press

Bright, J., 2000. A History Of Israel. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press

Brueggemann, W., 2000. 1 & 2 Kings. Macon: GE: Smyth & Helwys Publishing

Day, J., 2010. Prophecy and the Prophets in Ancient Israel: Proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar, London: T & T Clark

Finegan, J., 1999. Handbook Of Biblical Chronology: Principles Of Time Reckoning In The Ancient World And Problems Of Chronology In The Bible. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson.

Gabriel, R. A., 2003. The Military History Of Ancient Israel. Westport, Conn.: Praeger

Goldingay, J. and Allen, L., 2007. Uprooting And Planting: Essays On Jeremiah For Leslie Allen. New York: T & T Clark

Grabbe, L. and Nissinen, M., 2011. Constructs of Prophecy in the Former and Latter Prophets and Other Texts, Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature

Graham, M., Knoppers, G. and McKenzie, S., 2003. The Chronicler as Theologian. London: T & T Clark International

Gray, R., 1833. Josiah and Cyrus, Two Great Objects of Divine Notice, in the Scheme of Revelation. London: J. G. & F. Rivington

Harrison, R. K., 2009. Jeremiah And Lamentations. Nottingham, England: Inter-Varsity Press.

Jones, F. N., 1993. The Chronology Of The Old Testament: A Return To The Basics. The Woodlands Texas: KingsWord Press

Knapp, C., 1983. The Kings Of Judah And Israel. Neptune, N.J.: Loizeaux Brothers

Kratz, R. G. and Kurtz, P. M., 2015. Historical And Biblical Israel. Oxford UK: Oxford University Press

Lemche, N., 1998. The Israelites In History And Tradition. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press.

Liverani, M., Peri, C. and Davies, P., 2007. Israel’s History And The History Of Israel. London: Equinox Publishing Ltd.

Longman, T., Enns, P. and Strauss, M., 2013. The Baker Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Group

Lundbom, J., 2004. ‘Jeremiah’, in The Anchor Bible, New York, NY: Doubleday

Lundbom, J., 2013. Jeremiah Closer Up. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press

Monroe, L. A. S., 2011. Josiah’s Reform and the Dynamics of Defilement. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press

Porter, S., 2009. Dictionary Of Biblical Criticism And Interpretation. London: Routledge

Prosic, T., 2004. The Development and Symbolism of Passover until 70 CE. London: T & T Clark International

Rawlinson, G., 1879. ‘1 & 2 Chronicles’, in Student’s Commentary On The Bible: Old Testament Vol II Joshua -Esther. London: John Murray

Rawlinson, G., 1879. ‘1 & 2 Kings’, in Student’s Commentary On The Bible: Old Testament Vol II Joshua -Esther. London: John Murray

Rossier, H., 1993. Meditations On The Second Book Of Chronicles. Sunbury, Pa.: Believers Bookshelf, Inc.

Venema, G. J., 2004. Reading Scripture in the Old Testament, Leiden: Brill

Voegelin, E., Sandoz, E., Weiss, G. and Petropulos, W., 2001. The Collected Works Of Eric Voegelin: Volume 14: Order And History, Volume I, Israel And Revelation, Columbia: Missouri University Press

Walton, J., Matthews, V. and Chavalas, M., 2004. The IVP Bible Background Commentary. Downers Grove, Ill: InterVarsity Press

Wolfendale, J., 1892. The Preacher’s Complete Homiletic Commentary on the First and Second Books of the Chronicles. New York: Funk & Wagnalls

JOURNAL ARTICLES

Ahlström, G., 1981. King Josiah and the dwd of Amos vi. 10. Journal of Semitic Studies, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp.7-9

Avioz, M., 2007. Josiah’s Death in the Book of Kings. Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses, Vol. 83, No.4, pp.359-36

Ben-Dov, J., 2008. Writing as Oracle and as Law: New Contexts for the Book-Find of King Josiah. Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 127 , No. 2 (Summer, 2008), pp.223-239

Claburn, W., 1973. The Fiscal Basis of Josiah’s Reforms. Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 92, No. 1, pp.11-22

Delamarter, S., 2004. The Death of Josiah in Scripture and Tradition: Wrestling with the Problem of Evil? Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 54, No. 1, pp.29-60

Galil, G., 1993. Geba’-Ephraim and the Northern Boundary of Judah in the days of Josiah, Revue Biblique, Vol. 100, No. 3, pp. 358-367

Glatt-Gilad, D., 1996, The Role of Huldah’s Prophecy in the Chronicler’s Portrayal of Josiah’s Reform, Biblica, Vol. 77, No. 1, pp.16-31

Hamori, E., 2013. The Prophet and the Necromancer: Women’s Divination for Kings. Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 132, No. 4, pp.827-843

Hasegawa, S., 2017. Josiah’s Death: Its Reception History as Reflected in the Books of Kings and Chronicles. Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. 129, No. 4, pp.522-535

Heltzer, M., 2000. Some Questions Concerning the Economic Policy of Josiah, King of Judah. Israel Exploration Journal, Vol. 50 (1/2), pp.105-108

Janzen, D., 2013. The Sins of Josiah and Hezekiah: A Synchronic Reading of the Final Chapters of Kings. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, Vol. 37, No. 3, pp.349-370

Jonker, L. C., 2012. Huldah’s Oracle: The Origin of the Chronicler’s Typical Style, Verbum et Ecclesia, Vol. 33, No.1, pp.1-7

Leuchter, M., 2009. »The Prophets« and »The Levites« in Josiah’s Covenant Ceremony. Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. 121, No.1, pp.31-47

Malamat, A., 1950. The Last Wars of the Kingdom of Judah, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp.218-227

Markl, D., 2014. No Future without Moses: The Disastrous End of 2 Kings 22–25 and the Chance of the Moab Covenant (Deuteronomy 29–30). Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 133, No. 4, pp.711-728

Na’aman, N., 2011. The “Discovered Book” and the Legitimation of Josiah’s Reform. Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 130, No. 1, pp.47-62

Na’aman, N., 2013, Notes on the Temple ‘Restorations’ of Jehoash and Josiah. Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 63, No. 4, pp.640-651

Mitchell, C, 2006. The Ironic Death of Josiah in 2 Chronicles. CBQ, Vol. 68, No. 3, pp.421-435

Paton, L. B., 1898. The Religion of Judah from Josiah to Ezra, The Biblical World, Vol. 11, No.6, pp.410-421.

Talshir, Z., 1996. The Three Deaths of Josiah and the Strata of Biblical Historiography (2 Kings XXIII 29-30; 2 Chronicles XXXV 20-5; 1 Esdras 1 23-31), Vetus Testamentum, 46 (Fasc. 2, (Apr.,1996), pp.213-236

Wilson, A. M., 1892. The Character and Work of Josiah, The Old and New Testament Student, Vol. 14, No. 5, pp.276-284

Yadin, Y., 1976. Beer-sheba: The High Place Destroyed by King Josiah. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Vol. 222 (April), pp.5-17

See my posts:

King Josiah of Judah in 2 Kings

King Josiah of Judah in 2 Chronicles

The Death of King Josiah of Judah

Posted in General

THE DEATH OF KING JOSIAH OF JUDAH (640-609 BCE)

Posted on by writtenexposition

THE UNEXPECTED END OF A GOOD KING

Since King Josiah of Judah (640-609 BCE) is unknown in secular history, records of his death are only to be found in three religious texts. These are the canonical books 2 Kings (23:29-30) and 2 Chronicles (35:20-25) plus the deuterocanonical book 1 Esdras (1:25-32). The accounts differ in some details but all agree that Josiah met his end as the result of an encounter with Pharaoh Neco of Egypt.

The biblical record of Josiah concentrates mainly on internal affairs and gives us neither the big picture as regards geopolitics, nor a summary of Josiah’s foreign policy and his manoeuvres in response to the power plays between the superpowers of Assyria, Egypt and Bablylonia. One therefore has to form a conjecture of the sequence of events from information about the period available in external historical sources.

The might of the Assyrian empire had been declining for many years, certainly since before Josiah came to the throne. The Egyptians, the Elamites, the Arabian tribes and others had all revolted, and internal power struggles further weakened the massive empire. Under Ashurbanipal (669-631 BCE) the Assyrians had some success in quelling revolts but things worsened after his death. By the end of Josiah’s reign the Babylonians, under Cyaxares the Mede (625-585 BCE) and the Chaldean Nabopolassar (626-605 BCE), father of Nebuchadnezzar, were coming into ascendancy. It would seem that the Egyptians under their new Pharaoh Neco, although traditionally hostile towards their Assyrians overlords, preferred a weak Assyria to a strong Babylonia, and had committed themselves to helping the Assyrians against the Babylonians.

‘While Josiah was king, Pharaoh Necho king of Egypt went up to the Euphrates River to help the king of Assyria. ‘ 2 Kgs 23:29a (NIV)

NB. There has been ongoing controversy over the translation of this verse. The KJV has ‘went up against’ while modern translations like the NIV and ESV say ‘went up to.’ For a technical discussion arguing for a retention of the KJV translation and maintaining that Egypt did not help Assyria see F. N. Jones, 1993, The Chronology of the Old Testament:
A Return to the Basics pp. 184-188. He contends that ‘the king of Assyria’ refers to the Neo-Babylonian Nabopolassar (‘the new possessor of the title “King of Assyria” p.188) who had recently defeated the Assyrians. This article, however, proceeds on the basis that Neco went up to help the Assyrians against the Babylonians, as per the modern translations.

The Babylonian Chronicle for 609 BCE confirms the information given in 2 Kings 23:29 that an Egyptian army crossed the River Euphrates in order to help the Assyrians under Asshur-uballit fight a last ditch attempt to retake Haran from the Babylonians. The Babylonians had taken and destroyed Nineveh, capital of the Assyrian empire in 612 BCE. The Assyrians had set up a refugee government in the town of Haran (in modern day Turkey) but had fled from there when it too was captured by the Babylonians in 610. They needed an Egypto-Assyrian victory in order to survive.

It is probable that Josiah, who is thought to have been an unwilling vassal of Egypt for some years before then, had foreseen that the Babylonians would emerge the superior power and had thrown in his lot with them. Some reckon that he therefore went to Megiddo with the express intention of engaging in military action against Neco and the Egyptian army in order to detain them on their way north to help the Assyrians retake Haran. The delay Josiah intended to cause would hinder the progress of the Egyptian reinforcements towards the Assyrians and make a Babylonian victory more likely.

‘King Josiah marched out to meet him in battle, but Necho faced him and killed him at Megiddo.’ 2 Kgs 23:29b (NIV)

2 Chronicles makes no mention of the Assyrians but does say that Neco was heading for Carchemish in great haste (2 Chron 35:20-21).

Some scholars think that Josiah had been summoned to Megiddo by Neco. Neco had ascended the Egyptian throne just the previous year (610 BCE) and may have wished to meet and receive homage from his Judaean vassal. This type of request was standard procedure (e.g. Ahaz’s trip to Damascus to meet Tiglath-pileser, 2 Kgs 16:10) and, as Neco assured Josiah, was not an occasion for hostilities (2 Chron 25:31; 1 Esdras 1:26-27)

Whatever the motive, Josiah went to Megiddo with war in mind. Various reasons have been proposed:

a) he was filled with religious and nationalistic fervour as a result of his reforms. He was so keen to fight the old enemy, Egypt, that he was blind to reason.

b) he overestimated his military capabilities.

C) as has already been suggested, he calculated that there would be a change in the balance of international power in favour of the Babylonians and hoped to curry favour by obstructing the Egyptian armed forces on their way to assist the Assyrians.

According to 2 Kings 23:29-30 Josiah was killed at Megiddo and his dead body transferred from there by chariot to Jerusalem for burial.

According to 2 Chronicles 35:23-24 archers shot and mortally wounded him at Megiddo. His officers transferred him into another chariot which brought him to Jerusalem, where he died and was buried.

According to 1 Esdras 1:30-31 he was not injured or killed in battle but was overcome by a weakness, transferred to a second chariot and taken to Jerusalem, where he died and was buried: ‘The king said to his servants, “Take me away from the battle, for I am very weak.” And immediately his servants took him out of the line of battle. He got into his second chariot; and after he was brought back to Jerusalem he died, and was buried in the tomb of his ancestors.’ 1 Esdras 1:30-31

Pharaoh Neco went on to the Euphrates to help with the assault on Haran. Near Carchemish his forces were routed by the Babylonians. Neco and his army retreated and, on his way back to Egypt some three months later, Neco summoned Josiah’s son and successor Jehoahaz to his camp at Riblah on the Orontes (near Lebanon). He took Jehoahaz captive and transported him to Egypt, installing his brother Jehoiakim as an Egyptian puppet and vassal. Although he paid dearly for it, Josiah’s delaying action may have successfully caused Neco’s failure to save Assyria.

One might wonder how Josiah’s untimely demise squares with the oracle of Huldah the prophetess which appeared to promise him a good death (2 Kgs 22:20; 2 Chron 34:28). Upon closer inspection, however, Huldah’s prophecy only promised him a peaceful burial (‘thou shalt be gathered into thy grave in peace’ ) i.e. his country would not be at war.

Huldah’s prophecy provides one of the explanations given in the Bible for Josiah’s unexpected death. In those days in Judah the death of a king in battle would not have been regarded as heroic. Nor would it have been attributed to bad decision-making on his part or just plain ‘bad luck’. It would have been regarded as part of a chain of cause and effect. Evil behaviour resulted in punishment, righteous living was rewarded with prosperity and long life. According to this system of retribution Josiah must have done wrong! How could such a thing have happened to a righteous and godly young man whose life was marked by ‘goodness’ (2 Chron 35:26) and warranted the glowing assessment of 2 Kgs 23:25?

‘And like unto him was there no king before him, that turned to the Lord with all his heart, and with all his soul, and with all his might, according to all the law of Moses; neither after him arose there any like him’

Three possible explanations (reading between the lines) were given:

1) Josiah did not listen to the word of God spoken through a foreign king – Pharaoh Neco.

‘Nevertheless Josiah would not turn his face from him, but disguised himself, that he might fight with him, and hearkened not unto the words of Necho from the mouth of God, and came to fight in the valley of Megiddo’ 2 Chron 35:22

2) Josiah died because of his grandfather Manasseh’s sins.

‘Because they have forsaken me, and have burned incense unto other gods, that they might provoke me to anger with all the works of their hands; therefore my wrath shall be kindled against this place, and shall not be quenched.’ 2 Kings 22:17

‘Notwithstanding the LORD turned not from the fierceness of his great wrath, wherewith his anger was kindled against Judah, because of all the provocations that Manasseh had provoked him withal.’ 2 Kgs 23:26

3) Josiah’s death was a mercy.

According to Huldah’s prophecy (2 Kgs 22:20; 2 Chron 34:28) Josiah would have a peaceful burial. His country was not on a war footing and he was spared the distress of the forthcoming Babylonian invasion.


LESSONS:

a. Do not involve yourself in conflicts that do not concern the Lord’s people. Neco’s battle was with Babylon, not Judah.

b. Be open to the prompting and leading of the Lord through personal circumstances. Josiah died because he failed to recognize and heed God’s word through Pharoah Neco. Often God prompts through people and circumstances as well as through his written word.

See my posts:

King Josiah of Judah in 2 Kings

King Josiah of Judah in 2 Chronicles

King Josiah of Judah – Bibliography

Posted in Exposition

KING JOSIAH OF JUDAH in 2 Chronicles

Posted on by writtenexposition

READING: 2 Chronicles chapters 34-35

DIVISION

34:1-2 Opening Formula

34:3-5 Josiah’s religious purification of Jerusalem and Judah in his 12th regnal year

34:6-7 The extension of his activities to the northern tribal areas of Manasseh, Ephraim, Simeon, Naphtali, all Israel

34:8-18 Temple repairs and the finding of a torah scroll

34:19-28 Huldah’s oracle

34:29-32 Covenant-making

34:33 A summary verse

35:1-19 The Passover Celebration

35:20-27 The Death of King Josiah

THE JOSIAH ACCOUNT IN 2 CHRONICLES 34-35

34:1-2 Opening Formula

As in 2 Kings this introductory formula introduces the king and profiles his reign. Josiah was eight years old when he began to reign and the length of his reign was thirty-one years (640-609 BCE). He is commended for doing what was right in the sight of YHWH and like 2 Kgs 22:2 his name is linked with that of his ancestor David. The opening formula in 2 Kings gives us three facts; 1) his age at accession 2) the number of years he reigned 3) his mother’s name. The latter piece of information is not mentioned by the Chronicler. In both 2 Kings 22:2 and 2 Chron 34:2 Josiah is said to have deviated ‘neither to the right hand, nor to the left.’ Both formulae therefore immediately link Josiah to the book of Deuteronomy, where it is said that the model king should make a copy of the torah and read it all his life so that ‘he turn not aside from the commandment, to the right hand, or to the left.’

See my post: ‘King Josiah of Judah in 2 Kings‘

34:3-5 Josiah’s religious purification of Jerusalem and Judah in his 12th year

Unlike the Kings account which seems unconcerned with chronology and telescopes the main events of Josiah’s career into just one year (his eighteenth), the Chronicler is at pains to emphasize that his reforms were a step-by-step process. According to 2 Chronicles 34:3 he had a religious awakening during his eighth regnal year (633/2 BCE) while he was still young (about 16 years of age). It was then that he began to seek YHWH. It does not seem that his advisers, whoever they were, during the early part of his reign were concerned to guide him in the ways of the Lord. Presumably, for the first sixteen years of his life, those advising him were pro-Assyrian, and his religious policies would therefore have been similar to those pursued by his father Amon. We are not told why it took him four years of ‘seeking after’ the Lord before launching his campaign to rid the land of idolatry in the twelth year of his reign. 2 Kings has the purge initiated following the discovery of a torah scroll in the Temple in his eighteenth year (621 BCE). Here in 2 Chronicles the reforms begin in his twelth year – a full six years before the discovery of the law-book. This sequence of events is the most noticeable difference between the accounts of 2 Kgs 22-23 and 2 Chron 34-35.

In his twelth year (c. 628 BCE), at age twenty, he began a purge aimed at ridding Judah and Jerusalem of the high places, the groves, the carved idols and the cast images and restoring the pure worship of YHWH. Verses 3b-5 give a fuller explanation of what he did in Jerusalem and Judah. He personally supervised the destruction of places of idolatry, of the images themselves and of objects related to their worship. The high places must have been those which his grandfather Manasseh had rebuilt but at which the people only sacrificed to YHWH (33:3, 17). Verse 4 clearly states that the altars of the Baals were destroyed by him and that, as part of the same event, so were the images that were located high above them. It is not clear what these images were, possibly they had something to do with sun worship. The Chronicler does not record him purging the Jerusalem Temple, this had already been done by Manasseh ( 33:15-16). The purification of the temple mentioned in v. 8 would have been to sanctify it again through rituals after the completion of restoration works.

Verses 4b and 5 tell us that Josiah desecrated the graves of the idolatrous priests and burned their bones upon their altars. This was a crime for which the prophet Amos had denounced the king of Moab (Amos 2:1), yet the Chronicler passes no comment upon it. (cp. another passage about the disrespectful treatment of bones Jer 8:1-3). Perhaps this was seen as posthumous punishment for the idolaters, cremation being the punishment meted out to those regarded as false priests in Num16:35. Cremation is also prescribed as a punishment in Lev 20:14; 21:9 and Josh 7:25.

34:6-7 The extension of Josiah’s activities to the northern tribal areas of Manasseh, Ephraim, Simeon, Naphtali, all Israel

Taking advantage of Assyrian weakness at that time Josiah extended his campaign against idolatry into the territory that had been the Northern kingdom of Israel but was then part of the Assyrian empire. Although the Bible says little about his military exploits Josiah must have been strong enough to act independently and recover this territory from Assyrian control. The religious purge he conducted there was just as thorough as that in Judah:

‘In the towns of Manasseh, Ephraim and Simeon, as far as Naphtali, and in the ruins around them, he tore down the altars and the Asherah poles and crushed the idols to powder and cut to pieces all the incense altars throughout Israel. Then he went back to Jerusalem.’ 2 Chron 34:6-7 (NIV)

Thus Josiah set out on a personal, fanatical crusade against idolatry which, as clarified in 2 Kings 23:4-20, was implemented in three stages; 1) Judah and Jerusalem 2) Bethel 3) the towns of Samaria. Apart from the plural subject (they) at the beginning of v.4, the Chronicler, in 34:3-7, portrays Josiah himself as the one who toured the country systematically demolishing and burning;

‘he began to purge, he cut down, he broke..made dust, strewed, he burnt, so did he, when he had broken.’

2 Chron 34:4 and 2 Kgs 23:16 actually place him on site supervising the destruction.

34:8-18 Temple repairs and the finding of a torah scroll

The Chronicler comes now to the eighteenth year of Josiah which features so prominently in the 2 Kings account of his reign and relates the story of the finding of ‘a book of the law of the Lord given by Moses’ during restoration work on the Temple. Before this work by Josiah there seems to have been few changes made to the Temple since its construction by Solomon more than three hundred years earlier except;

* Some repairs by King Jehoash (2 Kgs 12:5-17).

* King Jotham built the upper gate of the temple (2 Kgs 15:35)

* King Ahaz made some structural changes on account of the king of Assyria (2 Kgs 16:17-18)

When money that had been given by people visiting the temple was brought out Hilkiah the priest found the law-book. This money appears to have been collected in large collection chests situated near the altar and watched over (2 Kgs 12:10; 22:4) by the ‘keepers of the threshold’ (Levites stationed at the door). Hilkiah gave the book to Shaphan the scribe who told Josiah about it while reporting on the finances of the Temple restoration project. Shaphan then read ‘out of it’ to the king who was greatly affected by what he heard and instructed a committee to inquire of the Lord concerning the book.

34:19-28 Huldah’s oracle and 34:29-32 Covenant-making

For comments on the above topics see my post: ‘King Josiah of Judah in 2 Kings‘

34:33 A summary verse

This verse emphasizes the role of the king in the religious purges and emphasizes that he ‘made’ the people serve the Lord. Compelled by Josiah, the commitment of the people to YHWH was superficial, there had been no inner change; they were still idolators at heart. Is it any wonder that his reforms had no permanent results, but died along with him? The Chronicler adds a comment of his own: ‘And all his days they departed not from following the Lord, the God of their fathers.’ There was no open idolatry for the rest of Josiah’s reign.

35:1-19 The Passover Celebration see also 1 Esdras 1:1-22

This Passover celebration, expressing renewed commitment to YHWH, is given prominence in the Chronicles account whereas it is mentioned but briefly in 2 Kings 23:21-23. Prior to this families would have observed the Passover in their own homes. This Passover, however was a public celebration in Jerusalem (35:1), in accordance with Deut 16:1-5. According to the Chronicler, there had never been a Passover like it (35:18). Much the same was said of Hezekiah’s Passover (2 Chron 30:26). From v.1 we learn that Josiah held it on the 14th day of the first month (Nisan). That was the correct date; Hezekiah’s celebration had been held a month later, on the 14th of the second month (2 Chron 30:15), and had lasted for two weeks rather than one (2 Chron 30:23).

By way of preparation for the great Passover Josiah set in motion the Temple service. For some reason he had to ‘urge’ the priests to take up their duties. He also organised the Levites, changing their responsibilities since they no longer carried the ark, see point a). They were to assist the priests in the Temple worship and in flaying the sacrificial animals. They are identified in v. 3 as teachers in Israel, a role formerly fulfilled by the priests (Jer 18:18; Hos 4:6) The obligations of the Levites are listed as:

a) To take the Ark of the Covenant back to its place in the Temple (35:3). It must have been stored elsewhere while the renovations were ongoing. It would no longer be a burden upon their shoulders i.e. its location in the Temple would be permanent so other duties would be allocated to them (35:11).

b) To serve the Lord their God and his people Israel (35:3).

c) To arrange themselves by families into divisions as appointed and decreed by David and Solomon (35:4)

d) To stand in the holy place in groups representing the subdivisions of each family(35:5)

e) To slaughter the Passover lambs (35:6)

f) To consecrate themselves (35:6)

g) To prepare the lambs for their fellow-Israelites (35:6).

THE SACRIFICIAL ANIMALS

The king, representing the nation and as the leading worshipper of YHWH, the national God, was the major supplier of animals for sacrifice. For this Passover he is said to have contributed 30,000 flock animals (lambs and kids) and 3000 bullocks.

2600 small animals and 300 oxen were willingly supplied by three men ( Hilkiah, Zechariah, Jehiel) who, all at the one time, shared the title ‘chief of the Temple.’ In other references to this position only one official bore the title (1 Chron 9:11; 2 Chron 31:13; Neh 11;11).

Other chiefs (named in v.9) donated 5000 small animals and 500 oxen. The sacrificial victims therefore numbered 41,400; 37,600 small animals and 3800 large animals.

35:10-19 With the priests and Levites in appointed stations the Passover began. The Levites slaughtered the sacrificial animals and passed the blood on to the priests who sprinkled it upon the altar. As this was a public Passover the blood could not be sprinkled on the side posts and upper door posts of family homes (Ex 12:7). The Levites butchered the cattle and prepared the pieces for the burnt offerings. They also roasted the Passover and boiled the consecrated offerings – distributing the cooked meat among the people. Since the priests were busy with the burnt offerings they and the Levites did not partake until later. The musicians and doorkeepers (Temple security) participated without having to leave their posts. Th Chronicler gives an extravagantly positive assessment of the occasion saying that there was never a Passover like it.

It is interesting to read, compare and contrast the major biblical Passovers:

1. In Egypt – at the Exodus. Exod 12;1-51

2. At Sinai. Num 9:1-5

3. In Canaan. Josh 5:10-12

4. Hezekiah’s Passover. 2 Chron 30:1-27

5. Josiah’s Passover 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chron 35:1-19

6. After the return from exile. Ezra 6:19-21

35:20-27 The Death of King Josiah

We are told nothing about the final thirteen years of King Josiah’s life. His death as a result of a confrontation with Pharaoh Neco at Megiddo is recorded. He was buried in one of the royal tombs and mourned by all Judah and Jerusalem, including the prophet Jeremiah who wrote a lament for him. In 2 Chronicles Jeremiah is mentioned here (35;25) and also in 36:12, 22, and 22. We know from an oracle pronounced against Shallum (Jehoahaz), a son of Josiah, that Jeremiah considered Josiah to be a just man:

‘Shalt thou reign, because thou closest thyself in cedar? did not thy father eat and drink, and do judgment and justice, and then it was well with him? He judged the cause of the poor and needy; then it was well with him: was not this to know me? saith the LORD.’ Jer 22:15-16

See my posts:

King Josiah of Judah in 2 Kings

The Death of King Josiah of Judah

King Josiah of Judah – Bibliography

Posted in Exposition

KING JOSIAH OF JUDAH in 2 Kings

Posted on by writtenexposition

READINGS:

2 Kings 22:1 – 23:30;

2 Chronicles 33:25 – 35:27;

See also: 1 Esdras 1:1-33

INTRODUCTION

Although unknown to secular history, King Josiah of Judah is one of the most significant figures in the Old Testament. He figures prominently in 2 Kings (22:1-23:30) and in 2 Chronicles (chps 34-35). The author of the Book of Kings is particularly enthusiastic about him and his achievements: ‘Neither before nor after Josiah was there a king like him who turned to the LORD as he did—with all his heart and with all his soul and with all his strength, in accordance with all the Law of Moses’ (2 Kgs 23:25). As well as the two accounts of Josiah’s career in the canonical books of 2 Kings and 2 Chronicles there is a third in the deuterocanonical book 1 Esdras (1:1-33). These three accounts differ from one another, most noticeably in the details surrounding Josiah’s death.

EARLY LIFE

Scant details are given in 2 Kings of the first seventeen years of Josiah’s life. He was the son of King Amon (642-640 BCE) of Judah (2 Kgs 21:26) by Jedidiah, daughter of Adaiah of Bozkath (2 Kgs 22:1). He probably remembered his grandfather Manasseh who, after a long reign (2 Kgs 21:1), died when Josiah was six years old.

His father Amon reigned for just two years before being assassinated by his own courtiers (2 Kgs 21:23). The biblical accounts do not give us the course of events leading up to the coup d’état that toppled Amon but it is thought that he continued the pro-Assyrian policies of his father Manasseh who had been a loyal vassal of Assyria for more than fifty years. Manasseh had not only tolerated but also encouraged pagan cults and practices, including divination, magic, sacred prostitution and human sacrifice. He even set up altars to the astral deities in the Temple of YHWH at Jerusalem (2 Kings 21:2-7; Zeph 1:4-6). According to the Chronicler, Amon was even more devoted to Assyrian religious practices than his father had been:

‘But he did that which was evil in the sight of the LORD, as did Manasseh his father: for Amon sacrificed unto all the carved images which Manasseh his father had made, and served them; And humbled not himself before the LORD, as Manasseh his father had humbled himself; but Amon trespassed more and more.’ 2 Chron 33:22-23

Those who conspired to kill Amon must have been anti-Assyrian and thought it a good time to rebel against the weakening Assyrian empire. It was struggling to quell uprisings in various parts of the empire at that time. Egypt was trying to gain control of Assyrian territory in Palestine and c. 639 laid siege to Ashdod, capital of Philistia, a province belonging to Assyria. The Arabian tribes and Acre and Ushu (mainland Tyre) revolted as did Elam. That Ashurbanipal brutally quelled these rebellions makes it seem likely that ‘the people of the land’, wishing to avoid military conflict with Assyria and the reprisals that would follow, successfully launched a counter-revolution. They executed those responsible for the regicide and installed Amon’s underage son Josiah as king. The status quo was thus restored and Assyria took no punitive action.

The child-king Josiah must have had a regent and/or a body of advisors but no details are given in the biblical record. The following officials are mentioned in the Josiah story and it may be that one or more of them acted on Josiah’s behalf.

Shaphan the scribe, son of Azaliah, the son of Meshullam  2 Kgs 22:3

Ahikam the son of Shaphan  2 Kgs 22:12,14; 2 Chron 34:20

Maaseiah the governor of the city   2 Chron 34:8

Joah the son of Joahaz the recorder  2 Chron 34:8

Achbor the son of Michaiah   2 Kgs 22:12,14

Abdon the son of Micah  2 Chron 34:20

Hilkiah the High Priest   2 Kgs 22:4, 8,10,12;  2 Chron 34:9,14, 15,18, 20

THE JOSIAH ACCOUNT IN 2 KINGS 22:1-23:30

22:1-2 Introductory Formula

22:3-10 The Temple and the Torah scroll

22:11-13 King Josiah’s response to the scroll

22:14-20 Huldah’s oracle

23:1-3 Making a covenant

23:4-20, 24 Purging Judah’s worship

23:21-23 The Passover

23:25 A positive verdict on Josiah

23:26-27 A negative verdict on Jerusalem

23:28-30 Josiah’s death

22:1-2 Introductory Formula

This tells us that Josiah began to reign at age eight and was on the throne for a period of thirty-one years (640-609 BCE). His mother was Jedidah, daughter of Adaiah of Boscath. It also gives a glowing introductory assessment based on his devotion to YHWH, Israel’s God.

‘And he did that which was right in the sight of the LORD, and walked in all the way of David his father, and turned not aside to the right hand or to the left.’

This is essentially repeated in the closing verdict on Josiah given in 2 Kgs 23:25:

‘And like unto him was there no king before him, that turned to the Lord with all his heart, and with all his soul, and with all his might, according to all the law of Moses; neither after him arose there any like him.’

A similar assessment was made of King Hezekiah in chapter 18:

‘He trusted in the LORD God of Israel; so that after him was none like him among all the kings of Judah, nor any that were before him. For he cleaved to the LORD, and departed not from following him, but kept his commandments, which the LORD commanded — Moses.’ 2 Kgs 18:5-6

There is, however, a difference of emphasis in the assessment of the two kings. The author of Kings is acclaiming Hezekiah’s trust but he applauds Josiah’s repentance.

22:3-10 The Temple and the Torah scroll

In the eighteenth year of Josiah’s reign (621 BCE) a programme of temple refurbishment was launched. Shaphan the scribe was appointed by the king to manage the project. His main responsibilities were the management of the finances for the building work and the payment of the tradesmen. He is the first of two main characters who feature in this section. The other is Hilkiah the High Priest. He reported to Shaphan his find of a torah scroll (the book of the law) in the temple (22:8). It must have lain in storage for years, the implication is that it had been long forgotten. Shaphan, in an audience with the king, unemotionally reported two main facts:

a) the financial arrangements had been carried out as required and the workmen had been paid.

b) the High Priest Hilkiah had found a scroll in the Temple.

The scroll was then read to King Josiah.

22:11-13 King Josiah’s response to the scroll

‘When the king had heard the words of the book of the law…he rent his clothes.’ The verb ‘to hear (šāma) has the idea of not just literally hearing but of also obeying. The most familiar passage in which the word is used is probably in Deut 6:4, where the instruction is not only to hear but also to do:

‘Hear, O Israel: The LORD our God is one LORD: And thou shalt love the LORD thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might. And these words, which I command thee this day, shall be in thine heart: And thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thine house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up. And thou shalt bind them for a sign upon thine hand, and they shall be as frontlets between thine eyes. And thou shalt write them upon the posts of thy house, and on thy gates.’

THE BOOK

It is generally reckoned that ‘the book’ that was found in the Temple was a scroll of Deuteronomy. It is called ‘the book of the law’ (2 Kgs 22:8, 11), ‘the book of the covenant’ (2 Kgs 23:2; 21) and ‘a book of the law of the Lord given by Moses’ (2 Chron 34:14). That it certainly contained threats (for Josiah’s reaction was extreme) strongly suggests Deuteronomy (Deut 27:15-25; 28:15-68). Josiah found it unsettling that Judah’s indifference meant that the Lord was angry with the nation (v13).

Josiah’s response was to rend (tear) his clothes. This was a dramatic expression of either grief ( Gen 37:29; Job 1:20) or repentance (1 Kgs 21:27). In Josiah’s case it probably represented both. His response to the reading of the torah (law) scroll stands in marked contrast to the later reaction of King Jehoiakim to a scroll containing words of the prophet Jeremiah (Jer 36:23). He cut it up with a scribe’s knife and burned it. ‘Rent (tore)’ in 2 Kings 22:11 and ‘cut’ in Jeremiah 36:23 translate the same Hebrew word (qāra). Josiah was willing to listen and respond positively to the word of the Lord that he heard. He tore his clothes in distress and repentance, Jehoiakim cut the scroll in rejection of its message.

Josiah then arranged for a committee composed of five of his top advisors (Hilkiah the priest, Ahikam the son of Shaphan, Achbor the son of Michaiah, Shaphan the scribe, Asahiah the king’s attendant) to ‘inquire of the Lord’ concerning the contents of the book. ‘Inquire’ seems to have meant to seek oracular guidance from a prophet (1 Kgs 22:5-6; 2 Kgs 3:11).

22:14-20 Huldah’s oracle

The delegation went to see Huldah the prophetess. She was the wife of Shallum the keeper of the wardrobe (in the Temple or the palace?) and was therefore well-connected and well-known at the court. She is one of several female prophets in the Old Testament, the others being: Miriam (Ex 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), Noadiah (Neh 6:14) and Isaiah’s wife (Isa 8:3). It is strange that the commissioners did not consult Jeremiah, whose ministry had begun five years earlier in the thirteenth year of Josiah (Jer 1:2).

Huldah’s oracle falls into two parts ( 2 Kgs 22:16-17, 19-20) , each preceded by an instruction that what followed was to be communicated to Josiah:

22:15 ‘And she said unto them, Thus saith the LORD God of Israel, Tell the man that sent you to me.’

22:18 ‘But to the king of Judah which sent — you to inquire of — the LORD, thus shall ye say to him, Thus saith the LORD God of Israel, As touching the words which thou hast heard’

She begins by describing Josiah as ‘the man that sent you.’ Perhaps this was a reminder to the Near Eastern despot that in the sight of the Lord he was just ‘a man.’

Public Fate

The first part of the oracle deals with Jerusalem and the people of Judah. First, Jerusalem and its inhabitants are given notice that because they have not exclusively worshipped YHWH then the curses that are found in the book (Deut 27 & 28) will come upon them. There is no call for repentance in order that disaster might be averted. Their worship of other gods has provoked the anger of YHWH to such an extent that the judgement is certain. There will be no escape. God’s wrath ‘shall not be quenched.’

Personal Future

The second part of the oracle addresses King Josiah. He is given an assurance (introduced by ‘therefore’ 22:20) that because his heart is tender and that he has humbled himself before YHWH, has torn his clothes and wept and has ‘heard’ (listened and acted upon’) the message of coming destruction, he will be gathered into his grave in peace. Although not explicitly stated it seems likely, from subsequent events, that Huldah advised Josiah that should he lead the people back to obedience to YHWH then there would be a temporary stay of judgement. Joshua therefore went on to initiate national reform in the knowledge that it would not stop the inevitable judgement and on the understanding that it would not fall during his lifetime; he would have a peaceful death before it came to pass. This seems to contradict the violence of his death as recorded in 2 Kgs 23:29-30.

See my post ‘The Death of King Josiah of Judah‘

Josiah had sent the delegation to the respected prophetess Huldah in order that she might authenticate the scroll. This she did by a word from YHWH. It seems that from this point forward the written word assumes greater importance. The importance of the temple and its rituals seems to recede (23:27b), it will be of no use during the exile anyhow. Brueggemann (2000, p.550) observes:

‘…it is clear that Huldah’s prophetic function is to enhance and reinforce the Torah scroll. Everything turns on “the words of the scroll” (22:16). The threat against the city, she pro-
claims, is rooted in the scroll and is simply articulated by Huldah. The assurance to the king is because of “the words you have heard,” words of Torah (22:18). Clearly Huldah as a prophetess has no autonomous function or voice, but is dependent on the Torah…’

23:1-3 Making a covenant

Josiah called the elders of Judah and organised a great assembly at the Temple at which all the inhabitants of Judah and Jerusalem, both ‘small and great’ were present. It is not known exactly what function the ‘elders’ (tribal and family heads) had during the monarchy but they must have had a degree of authority in their communities and involvement in local issues.

During the assembly the torah scroll which had turned up in the Temple was read aloud. The public reading of documents was important in the ancient Near East where many people were illiterate. In view of the whole nation Josiah stood near a pillar in the ‘house of YHWH’, probably on a platform, and made a covenant before YHWH, to follow his commands, statutes and decrees with all his heart and soul. The people pledged obedience also. Thus Josiah officiated at a public religious act that did not involve Temple liturgy or sacrifice.

N. B. Covenant-making was a familiar concept in ancient Israel. In the Old Testament we read that God made covenants with individuals (Adam, Abraham, Moses, Aaron, David and Phinehas) and also with his special people, Israel. The most famous were the Mosaic covenants at Sinai (Exod 24:1-8) and Moab (Deut 29:1). There was also covenant-making by Joshua (Josh 24:1-28), Jehoiada/ King Jehoash (2 Kgs 11:17) and now by Josiah. In the Old Testament three types of relationships are called covenants: friendship (1 Sam 18:1-4), marriage (Mal 2:14) and international treaties (1 Kgs 5:12; Ezek 17:14). It is the latter type of covenant that is in view as regards the relationship between Israel and its national God YHWH.

23:4-20, 24 Purging Judah’s worship

2 Kgs 23:4-20 gives a catalogue of activities carried out by Josiah. It lists a series of extreme measures aimed at wiping out any religious practice that did not conform to the covenantal Yahwism of the book of Deuteronomy. 2 Kings gives the impression that these activities were influenced by the torah scroll that was found in the Temple (23:24). It is likely, however, that vv. 4-20 are a parenthesis giving details of religious cleansing that had already taken place long before the finding of the scroll in the eighteenth year of Josiah’s reign. According to the 2 Chron 34:3-7 account it was ‘in the twelfth year he began to purge Judah and Jerusalem…’ (34:3).

This inventory in 2 Kgs 23:4-20 falls into two parts; a) vv. 4-14 – purges in Judah and Jerusalem b) vv. 15-20 – purges in Samaria (the territory of the former Northern kingdom of Israel)

It is startling to read the wide range of idolatrous practices present in Judah until at that time and which were tolerated even in the temple and its precincts. They included worship of Baal, Asherah, Molech, the sun, astral deities and also three deities that in 23:13 are said to have been introduced by Solomon; Ashtoreth, Chemosh and Milcom. Equally startling is the passion and zeal, along with the ruthlessness and efficiency, with which Josiah eliminated these cults and their functionaries (23:7). He even entered the territory of the former state of Israel (ended 722 BCE) which was officially part of the Assyrian empire, then in decline.

23:21-23 The Passover

Until this point the author of 2 Kings has been reporting negative activities of Josiah under the influence of the torah scroll found in the Temple. These verses briefly note the only positive act of of reform by Josiah in the 2 Kings account of his life. This was a celebration of the Passover held at Jerusalem in Josiah’s eighteenth year. Much greater detail is given in 2 Chronicles chapter 35. According to 23:22 no such Passover had been observed in the days of the judges or of the kings of Israel and Judah. In fact, the previous occasion on which a Passover was celebrated is recorded in Josh 5:10.

23:25 A positive verdict on Josiah

After a further summary of Josiah’s purges (v24) which are said to have been in accordance with what was written in the law-book the author proceeds to give a glowing verdict on Josiah. He views him as the model king, there was none before like him, neither will there ever be another after him. Similar things were said of King Hezekiah (2 Kgs 18:3-6) and of Moses (Deut 34:10-12). Josiah ‘turned to the LORD with all his heart, and with all his soul, and with all his might’ (23:25). That seems fairly close to fulfilling the initial obligations of the Shema in Deut 6:5: ‘And thou shalt love the LORD thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might.’

23:26-27 A negative verdict on Jerusalem

The narrator has bad news for us. In spite of all the good that Josiah did, and the esteem in which he was held by the Lord, these were not sufficient to outweigh the harm done by one man, his grandfather Manasseh (2 Kgs 21:1-18). The disobedience to God’s law and the sins that he instigated have been so serious that nothing, not even Josiah’s piety and merits, can reverse the destruction that will come upon Jerusalem and Judah.

23:28-30 Josiah’s death

Josiah intercepted an Egyptian force at Megiddo and was mortally injured in battle.

See my posts:

King Josiah of Judah in 2 Chronicles

The Death of King Josiah of Judah

King Josiah of Judah – Bibliography

Posted in General

OUR DAYS ON EARTH

Posted on by writtenexposition

JOB 14:1-14

During the late 1960s and early 70s I attended an afternoon Sunday School in the old Harryville Gospel Hall, Ballymena, where we were encouraged to learn a memory verse every week. These were not usually random verses, but from a chapter of the Bible. Of all the chapters, for me, the most memorable of all was Job chapter 14. Mr. Wilson, our teacher, did not listen to us repeat the words of each verse just for the sake of it. He also explained the meaning, pressing home the truth that life is transitory; that we are not here to stay. Job chapter 14 reminds us that:


OUR DAYS ON EARTH ARE FEW


‘Man that is born of a woman is of few days, and full of trouble.’ (14:1)


This is a reality that we all must face. Psalm 90:10 tells us: ‘The days of our years are threescore years and ten; and if by reason of strength they be fourscore years, yet is their strength labour and sorrow; for it is soon cut off, and we fly away.’ This, of course, is neither a guarantee that everyone will live to seventy, nor does it teach that one must die on his or her seventieth birthday. Many never make it to seventy and also many live beyond that age. The point is that we are all going to die. Using the ballpark figure of seventy calendar years that God has given us we can each expect to live for 25,550 days. Having turned sixty-one in April I have already (as I write this) used up 22,300 of those days. You can do the calculation for your own age or, easier still, ask Google: ‘How many days since ? (Your date of birth).’ If you have already reached the age of seventy you are on borrowed time. In that case do not despair! Psalm 90:10 adds ‘and if by reason of strength they be fourscore years’. Again this figure is a generalisation making the point that those who live longer can still be productive after the age of seventy. Psalm 92:14 says of the righteous: ‘They shall still bring forth fruit in old age.’ Nevertheless, when we consider our life in terms of the number of days this sobering fact emerges: our days are few.


OUR DAYS ON EARTH ARE FLEETING


‘He cometh forth like a flower, and is cut down: he fleeth also as a shadow, and continueth not.’ (14:2)


Life is uncertain, and it passes away quickly and unexpectedly. We can plan as much as we want but our plans may never come to fruition. At the beginning of 2020 who would have thought that by May the whole country would have been in lockdown for at least two months and thousands of our fellow-citizens gone into eternity as a result of COVID-19? Proverbs 27:1 reminds us: ‘Boast not thyself of to morrow; for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth.’James 4:13-14 says: ‘Go to now, ye that say, To day or tomorrow we will go into such a city, and continue there a year, and buy and sell, and get gain: Whereas ye know not what shall be on the morrow. For what is your life? It is even a vapour, that appeareth for a little time, and then vanisheth away.’Not one of us knows what is going to happen later today. Those who will die today, like all who have died in recent weeks, will have expected to live longer. Life is:


Like a vapour (James 4:14)

Like a weaver’s shuttle (Job 7:6)

Like the wind (Job 7:7)

Like a shadow (Job 8:9)

Like a royal carrier delivering a letter (Job 9:25)

Like a swift boat or an eagle in flight (Job 9:26)

Like a flower. (Job 14:2)


OUR DAYS ON EARTH ARE FIXED


‘Seeing his days are determined, the number of his months are with thee, thou hast appointed his bounds that he cannot pass;’ (14:5)


Only God knows the number of days that each of us will spend on earth. The Psalmist (31:15a) said: ‘My times are in thy hand.’ Each of us has an allotted span of time. God knows when our souls and spirits will leave these bodies. He also knows the circumstances surrounding these departures. We do not. Yet those appointments have already been made. They are in his calendar and they are unalterable and unavoidable. Hebrews 9:27 tells us: ‘And as it is appointed unto men once to die, but after this the judgment.’


OUR DAYS ON EARTH ARE FINAL


‘If a man die, shall he live again? all the days of my appointed time will I wait, till my change come.’ (14:14)


We have only one life on earth. A few days! How shall we spend them? There are no reruns, no second chances, no reincarnation. No more opportunities to serve the Lord. That makes life very serious. It is sacred, too, because it is given to us by God (Acts 17:25). ‘He gives to all life and breath and all things.’ Life is a wonderful thing; a blessing from God. We must give account to him for the use we make of it. We should therefore spend it wisely. Moses wrote in Psalm 90:12: ‘So teach us to number our days, that we may apply our hearts unto wisdom.’Our time here is limited. The years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, and seconds that we have left are counting down. We have several options: waste them, spend them or invest them (Mt 6:19-20). Which will it be?

Posted in General

THE PSALM OF JONAH

Posted on by writtenexposition

‘I called out to the LORD, out of my distress, and he answered me; out of the belly of Sheol I cried, and you heard my voice.’ Jonah 2:2 ESV

The book of Jonah is a strange and unusual little book that is well-known and loved by children and adults alike. It has always been classed as one of the prophetic books but the only prophecy it contains consists of just five Hebrew words which in English read: ‘Yet forty days, and Nineveh shall be overthrown’. Otherwise it is the story of Jonah, a prophet from Gath-hepher near Nazareth who ministered early in the reign of King Jeroboam II of Israel (northern kingdom), possibly around 775 BCE (2 Kings 14:25). He was called by the Lord to go to Nineveh and preach a message of repentance to Assyria; Israel’s greatest enemy at that time. Full of prejudice Jonah did not want the Assyrians to experience the love and grace of God so he fled in the opposite direction, with no intention of completing the task (1:3).

The book divides into two parts. Chapters one and two deal with the Lord’s command to preach to Nineveh, Jonah’s flight from God and his submarine experience in the belly of a great fish. This came to an end following his prayer three days and nights later. Chapters three and four record the sequel to his delivery from this ordeal; including a renewed command to preach and his still-grudging attempt to accomplish his mission.

One might ask why Jonah waited in his distressing situation for three days and nights before praying but, whatever the reason, we have in chapter 2:3-10 a lovely poetic psalm (hymn of praise or thanksgiving) in which Jonah acknowledged that ‘salvation is of the Lord’ (2:9). Jonah’s psalm is full of scripture, there are many allusions to the Book of Psalms itself, which shows us that Jonah was familiar with, and greatly influenced by, the word of God that was available to him at that time. It is a pity that he was unwilling to share it with others.

So often we are like Jonah in our disobedience, in our lack of concern for friends and neighbours, in our dissatisfaction at how God works, and in our selfishness and pride. After correcting us, however, God is patient and quick to forgive.

‘Behold, happy is the man whom God correcteth: therefore despise not thou the chastening of the Almighty:’ Job 5:17

Jonah was afflicted because he was disobedient, stubborn and selfish.

  1. God afflicts us because He is faithful. ‘I know, O LORD, that thy judgments are right, and that thou in faithfulness hast afflicted me.’ Psa 119:75
  2. God afflicts us when we go astray. ‘Before I was afflicted I went astray: but now have I kept thy word.’ Psa 119:67
  3. It can be profitable to be afflicted. ‘It is good for me that I have been afflicted; that I might learn thy statutes.’ Psa 119:71

This Psalm of Jonah was a very personal prayer of recognition, repentance and request. He was close to death, and knew it. In the midst of his anxiety and fear and in his desperate situation he realized that God’s plan for his life was better than that. In our current situation we too might see no future and no hope. Our circumstances leave us feeling exhausted or defeated. We ask: ‘What can we do?’ ‘Will things ever get better than this?’ ‘Is this all that lies ahead for us?’ ‘Where can we find deliverance from the struggles we are having now?’

Jonah must have been asking himself questions like these. How did he find the solution?

Jonah realized that he was in trouble. ‘There is a problem here.’ Jonah realized that he needed help. ‘Fixing this myself is impossible.’
Jonah turned to the only one who could help him. ‘Salvation is of the Lord.’

Jonah prayed with a sense of urgency and deep need. He realized that he had no hope of escape from his dreadful situation, that he was unable to save himself and that if he was to be saved, only the Lord could bring it about. He said, “I cried by reason of mine affliction unto the Lord.” What was the result? Twice in verse 2 we read that the Lord heard him. May we be encouraged by this today.