Tag: Tyre

Posted in Exposition

From Judgement on Sidon to Hope for Israel: A Study of Ezekiel 28:20-26

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INTRODUCTION

The passage Ezekiel 28:20-26 consists of a short oracle against Sidon followed by a repeat promise of restoration (11:17; 20:41 – see also 34:13; 36:24; 37:21; 39:27) for Judah (here called ‘Israel’). Since the oracle against Sidon is so brief many commentators assert that Ezekiel just includes Sidon in order to make the number of foreign nations against which he prophesies in chapters 25-32 total seven – a number signifying completeness. This seems rather unfair because Sidon was a long-term enemy of Israel.

What is the background to Ezekiel 28:20-26?

Sidon is listed in Gen 10:15 as a son of Canaan, and therefore a grandson of Ham. The nation founded by him occupied a city, also named Sidon, on the coast of Lebanon some 25 miles north of Tyre.

And the border of the Canaanites was from Sidon, as thou comest to Gerar, unto Gaza; as thou goest, unto Sodom, and Gomorrah, and Admah, and Zeboim, even unto Lasha. These are the sons of Ham, after their families, after their tongues, in their countries, and in their nations. Genesis 10:19-20

Through seafaring Sidon grew to be one of the earliest maritime empires and by the time of the Israelite conquest of Canaan (c.1400 BCE) could be described as the ‘great Sidon’ (Josh 11:8). Sidon’s influence gradually waned over the next few centuries, mainly due to the ascendancy of its neighbour, Tyre. However, they remained closely aligned, to the extent that one of the titles of the Tyrian monarch was ‘King of the Sidonians’ (1 Kgs 16:31). In his allegory of Tyre as a ship in chapter 27 Ezekiel depicted the Sidonians as members of its crew (Ezek 27:8), so they remained closely linked. Even in New Testament times the two cities were referred to as ‘Tyre and Sidon,’ for example; Mt 11:21-22; 15:21; Mk 3:8; 7: 24, 31; Lk 10:13; Acts 12:20.

What is the theme of Ezekiel 28:20-26?

The theme of this section is the determination of YHWH to have his power and glory recognised by all nations. The key phrase in this passage is ‘that they may know that I am the Lord.’ It occurs 4 times in 5 verses.

What is the structure of Ezekiel 28:20-26?

20-24 SIDON’S DOOM

25-26 ISRAEL’S RESTORATION

EXPLANATION

20-24 SIDON’S DOOM

(20) The prophetic word formula ‘Again the word of the Lord came unto me, saying’ tells us that this is the start of a new oracle.

(21) Ezekiel, again addressed as ‘Son of Adam,’ is instructed to deliver this oracle against Sidon while assuming a stance that indicates hostility (‘set thy face against’).

(22) Ezekiel asserts that his oracle has divine authority by using the formula ‘Thus saith the Lord God.’ The beginning of the message is addressed directly to Sidon – using the 2nd person ‘you’ – prophesying that YHWH is hostile towards Sidon and will display his glory through what he does ‘in her midst.’ In the middle of v.22 Ezekiel switches from the 2nd person (‘you’) to the third person (‘they’ and ‘her’) and thus stops directly addressing Sidon in order to speak about Sidon to the exiles who are with him in Babylon.

Unlike the oracles against the other nations no formal indictment against Sidon appears here. However, Ezekiel may have felt it unnecessary to rehearse the reasons for Sidon’s punishment because the city is so intimately connected with Tyre, and the reasons for Tyre’s judgement have already been spelt out. Instead, once YHWH claims that that he will be sanctified through Sidon’s judgement and recognised as the Lord, Ezekiel moves on to Sidon’s punishment in v.23.

According to v.22, therefore, the Lord will be both ‘glorified’ and ‘sanctified’ through Sidon’s punishment. In it his glory will be recognised and his holiness manifested. The ideas of glory and of holiness also appear together in connection with punishment in Lev 10:1- 3: Then Moses said unto Aaron, This is it that the LORD spoke, saying, I will be sanctified in them that come nigh me, and before all the people I will be glorified. And Aaron held his peace. Leviticus 10:3

(23) Sidon’s punishment is couched in terms that Ezekiel has already used to predict the siege of a city by Nebuchadnezzar’s forces (5:12, 17; 6:12; 14:12-23). A siege by the Babylonians lay in store for Sidon, with the accompanying problems of plague and bloodshed; the latter pictured by heaps of the wounded and slain piled up in the streets. The motivation for this is restated (see v.22); ‘They shall know that I am the Lord.’

(24) Sidon’s downfall will mark an end to the irritating hostility and contempt towards Israel/Judah by her heathen neighbours. Sidon is metaphorically described as ‘a pricking brier’ or a ‘piercing thorn’ that will no longer afflict Israel. Similar language is used in a oracle delivered by Moses about Israel’s enemies in the Land of Canaan rather than those surrounding it: But if ye will not drive out the inhabitants of the land from before you; then it shall come to pass, that those which ye let remain of them shall be pricks in your eyes, and thorns in your sides, and shall vex you in the land wherein ye dwell. Numbers 33:55.

Then, for the third time in the short oracle against Sidon comes the divine recognition formula: ‘they shall know that I am the Lord God.’

25-26 ISRAEL’S RESTORATION

(25) The final verses of chapter 28 contain a new oracle that begins with the prophetic messenger formula ‘Thus saith the Lord God.’ It focuses on the gathering of Israelite exiles from the unnamed people among whom they have been scattered and their return to the land that had been promised to their ancestor Jacob (Gen 28:13-15; 35:10-12). As a result of Israel’s resettlement the Gentile nations will reverence the Lord. Notice v. 23 ‘I shall be sanctified in her’ (doomed Sidon) and v.25 ‘I shall be sanctified in them’ (restored Israelites).

(26) Verse 26 paints a picture of peace and tranquillity. The people will dwell in security and involve themselves in peaceful pursuits like housebuilding and agriculture. This serenity will become possible once Israel’s enemies are destroyed. The oracle closes with a final repetition of the recognition formula that has occurred 4 times in the last five verses: ‘they shall know that I am the Lord their God.

Ezekiel is fond of bringing oracles to a close with the words of the recognition formula – see 6:13-14; 11:10,12; 12:15-16; 28:20-23; 28:24-26; 30:25-26; 34:27-30; 37:13-14.

SUMMATION – EZEKIEL 28:20-16

At first reading it seems rather strange that the two short prophecies in this section should be strung together. Verses 20-24 deliver an oracle of doom against the Phoenician city of Sidon which must have been proud and contemptuous like its neighbour Tyre and which is described as a thorn in the side of the house of Israel. Then, by way of contrast, verses 25-26 present a pleasant pastoral picture of rebuilt farmsteads, fruitful vineyards and the house of Israel dwelling in peace and safety.

The juxtaposition of these two short oracles is no accident. These contrasting events – Sidon’s coming doom and Israel’s future prosperity – are closely linked. The two oracles testify to the certainty of God’s judgement upon those who mock and to his faithfulness in consoling and restoring his hurt and broken people. Everything that happens will make the Lord’s glory known.

The two prophecies therefore share a common, repeated refrain that is the theme of the entire section: ‘Then they shall know that I am the Lord God.’ God’s punishment of the surrounding nations is not petty retaliation nor is his restoration of Israel favouritism. The former displays that he is sovereign over all nations, the latter is a demonstration of his covenant faithfulness to his people.

The closing verses of chapter 28 preview the oracles of consolation and restoration that occupy chapters 34-39 of the book of Ezekiel but before coming to those Ezekiel presents six dated oracles concerning Egypt and the Egyptian Pharoah (29:1-16; 29:17-30:19; 30:20-26; 31:1-18; 32:1-16; 32:17-33:20).

Posted in Exposition

Ezekiel 28: Prophecy Against Tyre’s Prince

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WHAT IS THE BACKGROUND TO EZEKIEL CHAPTER 28?

Chapters 25-32 of Ezekiel form a unit composed of oracles against Judah’s neighbours, These oracles lie between the prophecies given before the fall of Jerusalem (chps.1-24) and those spoken after the fall of the city (chps. 33-48). They fill the gap between the announcement that the siege of Jerusalem has begun (24:1-2) and word of the fall of the city (33:21).

Chapter 25 deals with Ammon, Moab, Edom and Philistia. Next comes almost three chapters on Tyre (26:1-28:19), a short section on Sidon (28:20-26), then four chapters on Egypt (29:1-32:32).

Chapter 26 contains four short prophecies against Tyre (vv.3-6; 7-14; 15-18; 19-21) which are followed by a funeral lament over Tyre in chapter 27. Ezekiel continues with a similar arrangement in chapter 28 which contains a prophecy against the Prince of Tyre (vv.1-10) followed by a funeral lament over the King of Tyre (vv.11-19).

WHAT IS THE STRUCTURE OF EZEKIEL CHAPTER 28?

1-10 – A PROPHECY AGAINST THE PRINCE OF TYRE

11-19 – A DIRGE OVER THE KING OF TYRE

20-24 – A PROPHECY AGAINST SIDON

25-26 – A SHORT PROPHECY ABOUT THE FUTURE OF JUDAH.

WHAT IS EZEKIEL CHAPTER 28 ABOUT?

1-10 – A PROPHECY AGAINST THE PRINCE OF TYRE

(1) The prophetic word formula ‘The word of the Lord came unto me again, saying,’ indicates that what follows is a new oracle. Since no start date is given, this must still relate to 586/587 BCE, the eleventh year on the first of the month mentioned in 26:1. The particular month is not specified.

(2) Ezekiel, once more addressed as ‘Son of Adam’ (mortal), is instructed to address YHWH’s message directly to the Prince (leader) of Tyre who, as its ruler, represents the city of Tyre. The word nagid (translated ‘prince’ or ‘captain’) is sometimes used as a synonym for melek (king), e.g.1 Sam 9:16; 2 Sam 6:21;1 Kings 1:35; 2 Kings 20:5).

Who is the Prince of Tyre?

There now follows a pronouncement of judgement (vv.2-10) beginning, as usual, with ‘because’ (vv.2, 6) followed by ‘therefore’ (v.6). Tyre is first of all accused of arrogance towards God. The Prince (or Leader) of Tyre, is its king who like other ancient monarchs may have claimed to be divine (cf. King of Babylon Isa 14:13-14,), and boasts that he is a [local] god. Tyre was an island kingdom always associated with the sea and seafaring. Its ruler therefore thought himself to be like Elohim (God or gods) who presided over the primordial waters (Gen 1:2). Verse 2 emphasises that the ruler of Tyre is a man; he is not divine.

(3-5) These verses are heavy with sarcasm as YHWH castigates the Leader of Tyre for the worldly wisdom that has brought great wealth through international trade. Tyre owes its prosperity to YHWH but has failed to recognise this. In v.3 YHWH sarcastically suggests that the Prince of Tyre is wiser than Daniel (a man famed for his wisdom) and thinks that no secret is hidden from him. By way of explanation about Daniel I quote my own comments on Ezekiel 14:14:

‘Daniel – This likely refers to Ezekiel’s older contemporary the Daniel of the Babylonian exile who, though still a young man . . . at this time, had already gained a reputation for righteousness. . . Modern scholars tend to argue that this is not the Daniel of the book of Daniel but the righteous Ugaritic Daniel (Dn’il) of The Tale of Aqhat. Their arguments centre on the fact that the spelling of ‘Daniel’ in the book of Ezekiel differs from that in the book of Daniel, that Dn’il was a figure of antiquity as were Noah and Job but not the contemporary Daniel and the chronological argument that the Daniel of the book of Daniel was too young to have achieved fame at the time this oracle was given. Arguments for Dn’il in the article by ‘Day, J. (1980). The Daniel of Ugarit and Ezekiel and the Hero of the Book of Daniel. Vetus Testamentum, 30(2), pp. 174–184′ may be read online free of charge by logging into JSTOR. ‘The Tale of Aqhat’ may be read in J. B. Pritchard’s ‘Ancient Near Eastern Texts’ at archive.org.’

Through worldly wisdom the Prince of Tyre has acquired great wealth and has precious metals in his treasuries. Admittedly, through his shrewdness and understanding of trading, the city has become very rich – but also very proud.

(6) ‘Therefore’ followed by the prophetic messenger formula ‘Thus saith the Lord God (sovereign Lord)’ introduces the pronouncement of judgement. It commences with ‘Because’ and first of all sets out the accusation against Tyre. Verse 6b is basically a summary of what has already been stated in vv.2-5 that the ruler of Tyre is arrogant and blasphemous because he claims to be divine and as wise as God.

(7-8) Verse 7 repeats the more specific prediction of chapter 26:7 but couches it in vaguer and more general terms – the most ruthless of the Gentile nations will come up against Tyre. In chapter 26 the prophet has already identified those invaders as the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar. They will destroy the ‘beauty of the ruler’s wisdom’ (i.e. Tyre’s commercial success) and ‘profane his radiance’ (i.e. destroy any resemblance of deity). He (i.e. Tyre) will die a violent death at their hands ‘in the midst of the seas.’ Tyre’s position as an island fortress will not be secure at all.

(9) Verse 9 is a sarcastic rhetorical question that reminds the ruler of Tyre that he is merely a human being and emphasises the futility of his claims to divinity in the face of a violent death.

Will you then boast, ‘I am a god!’ to those who kill you? To them you will be no god but merely a man! Ezekiel 28:9 (NLT)

(10) Thou shalt die the deaths of the uncircumcised by the hand of strangers: for I have spoken it, saith the Lord GOD. Ezekiel 28:10

The ancient Greek historian Herodotus (Herodotus, Histories 2.104) recorded c.440 BCE that the Phoenicians, like other West Semitic peoples, traditionally practised circumcision. The Babylonians did not circumcise. Although the Israelites were not the only people to practise circumcision they linked the practice with the covenant with their God YHWH. Most likely that is what Ezekiel has in mind here. Although the ruler of Tyre would not literally be uncircumcised he would die a shameful death outside YHWH’s covenant; just like the foreign, godless, uncircumcised, Gentile Babylonians.

11-19 – A DIRGE OVER THE KING OF TYRE

(11-12a) Once more the prophetic word formula ‘The word of the Lord came unto me again, saying,’ introduces a new oracle, which occupies vv.12-19. Ezekiel, as usual called ‘Son of Adam,’ is to address a ‘lament’ (dirge, funeral song) to the ruler of Tyre, now called ‘King’ (melek), using the prophetic word formula ‘Thus saith the Lord God.’ The funeral lament for someone who is still alive indicates that he is doomed. For ‘taking up a lamentation’ cf. 19:1, 14; 26:17; 27:32; 32:16).

Who is the King of Tyre?

In this dirge Ezekiel draws upon imagery from Ancient Near Eastern mythology (possibly Ugaritic and Phoenician) about El or Baal or a semi-divine figure/hero. He also brings in imagery from the biblical stories of Creation, the Garden of Eden, and the Israelite Tabernacle/Temple. Using highly symbolic cosmic language Ezekiel weaves these ideas together to represent the King of Tyre as someone who embodied all the qualities that God would expect of the ideal human being but whose initial perfection has been marred by pride and corruption. Although highly intelligent he sinned and profaned sacred space that God intended as a sanctuary.

Historians generally agree that the King of Tyre at that time was Ethbaal III. Ezekiel is targeting him as a symbol of the city of Tyre. It is important to bear in mind that Ezekiel is using symbolic language. In chapter 28 Ethbaal III is no more literally in the Garden of Eden or a Cherub than the city of Tyre in chapter 27 is literally a ship.

Having said that, some theologians see a dual aspect in this passage. There is an Adam tradition and a Satan tradition, both based on the motifs in the passage of original perfection, wisdom, pride and a fall. Commenting on the Adam tradition which connects Ezekiel 27 with the account of the Fall of Man in Genesis 2-3 McKenzie (1956, p.326) observes:


I thus summed up the points of contact between the two passages: “There are some indisputably common features in the two passages: Eden, the garden of God, primeval perfection and bliss, a fall. But there are some even more remarkable divergences: in Ezekiel the garden is full of precious stones; there are no trees; the being is clothed, he is endowed with marvelous attributes; he does not keep and till the garden, which is located on the mountain of God; there is no serpent; and, most important of all, there is no woman. To this I should have added that the motif of “likeness to Elohim” does not appear in Ezekiel.

The Satan tradition links this passage with otherwise unrelated verses in Isa 14:12; Luke 10:18; 1 Jn 3:8; Rev 12:19. Patmore (pp.65-67) cites Tertullian (c. 200 CE) as the earliest Christian writer to propound this view and proceeds to explain the thinking of the church fathers on this subject:

The argument is relatively straightforward: God created the Devil, but not as the Devil, rather as a glorious angel, to serve as his right hand man. This angel was, like humankind, created good, and was also entrusted with free will (liberi arbitrii institutus: cf. Jas 1:13–14). This angel sinned and caused man to sin too, but in order to give humankind a chance to crush evil with that same free will and win an even greater reward, God postponed his destruction. Ezekiel 28 forms the entire structure for this argument, with each component of the argument being pinned down to the text. Pride, claims of equality with God, and fiery expulsion from heaven: these are the qualities that the fathers saw in Ezekiel 28:12–19 that convinced them that this oracle was not just about a bad prince. They found support in the Old Testament too, often using Isa 14:12 to support their argument (“How art thou fallen, O Lucifer, son of the morning!”) However, it is ultimately the New Testament that prompts the fathers’ reading of the oracle: “I beheld Satan as lightning fall from heaven” (Luke 10:18) primarily; “that the devil sinneth from the beginning” (1 John 3:8) to a lesser extent.

(12b-13a) HIS CREDENTIALS

‘the sealing of the pattern’ – You were the sealing of the pattern i.e. the model of perfection

‘full of wisdom’ – a superabundance of wisdom.

‘exquisite in beauty’ – perfect

‘You were in Eden the Garden of God’

‘Every precious stone was your covering’

In these verses Ezekiel uses language reminiscent of Genesis 2-3 although the details are different. A character placed in the Garden of Eden, who was once perfect and wise but who became corrupt and was driven out (v.16). A cherubim is also mentioned. It seems that Ezekiel is sardonically portraying the King of Tyre as the ideal human being. Note that the inner sanctuary of Solomon’s Temple was designed to resemble a garden with carvings of trees and flowers, it also had cherubim (1 Kgs 6:29,32) – see vv.14, 16.

(13b) HIS COVERING

Still having the primeval human being in mind with the mention of covering Ezekiel here mentions the riches that the King of Tyre had enjoyed from the very beginning. The covering is said to have been composed of precious stones, nine of which were on the breastplate of the the Israelite High Priest (Exod 28:11-29; 39:6-21). The settings and mountings (KJV has musical instruments ‘tabrets and pipes’) were prepared in the day he was created. Some speculate that this refers to a statue in the Tyrian temple overlaid with jewels. The King of Tyre may also have had a religious function, probably in the worship of Tyre’s patron deity Melqart (Tyrian Baal) .

(14) HIS CALLING

Ezekiel idealises the King of Tyre as a cherub (composite creature half human, half animal) who has been anointed as a guardian (‘cherub who covers’) on the holy mountain of Elohim – where God dwells (see also v.16). Representations of such overshadowed the Ark in the sanctuary of the Jerusalem temple (which at the time Ezekiel delivered this lament had recently been destroyed) – see Exod 25:20; 37:9; 1 Kings 8:7; 1 Chron 28:18.

‘Thou hast walked up and down in the midst of the stones of fire’ – the meaning of this is unclear. Some suggest that it refers to the purity of God’s presence, to coals of fire on a temple altar or to the shining of precious stones in a temple. The historian Herodotus (Histories 2.44), who visited the Tyrian temple, wrote about seeing ‘an emerald stone of such size as to shine by night.’ There is no equivalent to the stones of fire in Gen 2-3.

What is the holy mountain of Elohim in this passage? Mt. Zaphon, the divine dwelling place in Ugaritic mythology, has been suggested, as has Mt. Sinai and also Mt. Zion – where the recently-demolished Temple of Solomon once stood. There is no mountain associated with the Garden of Eden in Gen 2-3.

Pett comments: Mountains were seen as the abode of the gods, and many a temple had within it an artificial mountain representing the home of the gods. Does this mean that the king had depicted himself as a guardian cherub, a demi-god committed to the protection of the gods, especially Baal Melkart the Tyrian god? Or is the idea that he claimed to be a god, even a personification of Melkart, protected by a guardian Cherub and that he is being reminded that he was set in the garden on the holy mountain by Yahweh, for all that is done, is done by Yahweh? Either way it represents his proud assumption of some kind of divinity as he walked in the temple garden on the mountain of the gods, so that Yahweh here has to remind him that anything he has, has come from Yahweh, for Yahweh is the Creator, and in all Yahweh is in control.

(15-17a) HIS CORRUPTION

The metaphor of the King of Tyre as a cherub is extended in these verses with repetition in v.16 of ‘mountain of Elohim,’ ‘covering cherub’ and ‘stones of fire’. He was blameless in all that he did until the day that iniquity was found in him. His initial perfection was marred by unrighteousness. He was intelligent and beautiful but because of his splendour became proud.

(17b-19) HIS CATASTROPHE

Initial perfection was followed by pride, then a fall – echoes of Genesis 2-3 again. Since the King of Tyre was polluted through widespread trade and violence God has banished him from his presence. Because of his economic crimes and unjust trading practices God will bring the King of Tyre down and humiliate and expose him before kings. Fire will spring up and consume him. He will be reduced to ashes on the ground. He will be no more and all the nations that traded with him will be appalled.

SUMMARY

In 28:2-10 God addresses the Prince of Tyre through the prophet Ezekiel and condemns him for his arrogance and pride in claiming to be a god although he is merely mortal. His commercial acumen has brought him immense wealth but has inflated his ego to the extent that he regards himself as divine. Because of this God will arrange for ruthless foreigners to to invade The Prince of Tyre, destroy his splendour and cause him to die a violent, shameful death ‘in the midst of the seas’; thus proving once and for all that he is only a man

In vv.11-19 the prophet delivers a funeral dirge over Tyre’s ruler, now called the King of Tyre, in which he draws together themes from early biblical history and Ancient Near Eastern mythology to portray Tyre in exalted terms as the model of perfection, full of wisdom and beauty, once dwelling in Eden the garden of God, adorned with jewels, serving as a guardian cherub on the holy mountain of Elohim among the fiery stones. Blameless until iniquity was found in him because of his widespread trade and violence, his pride in his splendour corrupted his wisdom. God will therefore expel him from his exalted location and cast him down as spectacle before the nations. He will come to a dreadful end and all his former trading partners will be appalled.

Both oracles concerning the Leader of Tyre in Ezekiel chapter 28 highlight the general biblical principle that prosperity and splendour can lead to pride and self-exaltation, which God opposes and will judge.

Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall. Proverbs 16:18

Do ye think that the Scripture saith in vain, The spirit that dwelleth in us lusteth to envy? But he giveth more grace. Wherefore he saith, God resisteth the proud, but giveth grace unto the humble. James 4:5-6

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Joyce, P.M. (2007). Ezekiel. T & T Clark International, London

Patmore, H. M. (2011) ‘ADAM OR SATAN? THE IDENTITY OF THE KING OF TYRE IN LATE ANTIQUITY’ in Mein, A. and Joyce, P. M. (eds), After Ezekiel: Essays on the Reception of a Difficult Prophet, T & T Clark, London

Sweeney, M. A. (2013). Reading Ezekiel. Smyth & Helwys Publishing Inc. Macon, Georgia

JOURNAL ARTICLES

McKenzie, J. L. (1956). Mythological Allusions in Ezek 28:12-18. Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 75, No., pp.322-327.

Saur, M. (2010). Ezekiel 26-28 and the History of Tyre. Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, Vol. 24, No. 2 pp.208–221

ELECTRONIC RESOURCES

Herodotus, Histories 2.44. (2026) [online] Lexundria.com. Available at: https://lexundria.com/go?q=hdt.+2.44&v=mcly [Accessed 26 July 2026].

Herodotus, Histories 2.104. (2026). [online] Lexundria.com. Available at: https://lexundria.com/hdt/2.104/mcly [Accessed 26 July 2026].

Pett, P. (2026). Ezekiel 28. [online] StudyLight.org. Available at: https://www.studylight.org/commentaries/eng/pet/ezekiel-28.html [Accessed 26 July 2026].

Posted in Exposition

The Sinking Ship of Tyre in Ezekiel 27

Posted on by writtenexposition

INTRODUCTION TO EZEKIEL 27

Ezekiel chapter 27 is an extended allegory about Tyre, the dominant maritime trading power of the ancient Mediterranean. It compares the wealthy, seafaring city-state to a luxury merchant ship that gets caught in a storm, breaks apart and sinks. This magnificent vessel has been built by superior craftsmen, constructed using the finest materials, is crewed by the best sailors and sails fully laden with goods sourced from all over the then-known world.

This allegory symbolises Tyre’s economic prowess, international reach and importance as the centre of the world economy. Ezekiel mourns the impending destruction of the city by commenting on its beauty and glory, global trade network and the variety of goods it trades by means of a dirge. A dirge is a funeral lament but this one is not sympathetic. It is satirical and is uttered while Tyre is still very much alive. This blog post will examine the historical context, symbolism and key lessons of Ezekiel 27, showing why this ancient ‘shipwreck’ still matters today.

TYRE

Tyre was an important port for Phoenicia, a federation of independent city states famous in ancient times for seafaring and commerce. Just as the Arabs with their camel trains dominated the transportation of goods overland so the Phoenician merchant navy dominated the shipping routes; conveying goods to and from the three continents (Africa, Asia and Europe) bordering the Mediterranean. The prowess of the Phoenicians (Tyre, Sidon and Byblos) as merchants and human traffickers is acknowledged by the Old Testament Hebrew prophets (Isa 23:1-8, 17-18; Ezekiel 27:1-36; 28:1-5; Joel 3:4-7; Amos 1:9). Ezekiel chapter 27 is of special historical interest because it not only gives a list of commodities traded by the Tyrians but also details the many and widespread locations where they did business.

THE STRUCTURE OF EZEKIEL 27

1-3 INTRODUCTION TO THE DIRGE ABOUT TYRE

4-7 THE BEAUTY OF TYRE’S CONSTRUCTION

8-9 THE PROFESSIONALISM OF TYRE’S CREW

10-11 THE STRENGTH OF TYRE’S MERCENARIES

12-25 TYRE’S TRADING NETWORK AND GOODS

26-36 TYRE’S SHIPWRECK AND THE AFTERMATH

EZEKIEL 27 EXPLAINED

INTRODUCTION TO THE DIRGE ABOUT TYRE (1-3)

(1) The word of the LORD came again unto me, saying,

Chapter 27 begins with the prophetic word formula ‘The word of the Lord came unto me again, saying’ which is also at 26:1; 28:1 and 28:11. Ezekiel gives no date here or at 28:1 so chapters 27 and 28 must relate to the date given at 26:1 (the first day of an unspecified month in the eleventh year of Jehoiachin’s exile in Babylon and Zedekiah’s reign in Judah, i.e. 587/586 BCE). Nebuchadnezzar’s siege of Tyre was from 585-573 BCE so that was still future when Ezekiel prophesied chapters 26-28.

(2) Now, thou son of man, take up a lamentation for Tyrus;

Addressing Ezekiel as usual by the title ‘son of Adam’ the Lord emphatically says ‘And you,’ which the KJV translates ‘Now, thou…’ This refers Ezekiel back to 26:17 which predicts that the princes of the sea will ‘take up a lamentation’ for Tyre when the city falls. As well as those princes Ezekiel too is to raise a dirge (qiynāh – funeral lamentation) but he is to do that now, when the city is still very much alive.

(3) And say unto Tyrus, O thou that art situate at the entry of the sea, which art a merchant of the people for many isles, Thus saith the Lord GOD; O Tyrus, thou hast said, I am of perfect beauty.

Ezekiel is to address the city of Tyre directly and present first of all the Lord’s view of her and then her view of herself (‘O you who sit’ is feminine).

The Lord’s view:

  • ‘you who sit (as queen?) at the gateway to the sea’ – the city controlled access to the Mediterranean Sea
  • ‘you are a merchant to the peoples on many coasts’ – Tyre was the centre of world trade

Tyre’s view of herself:

‘You have said, ‘I am perfect in beauty.’ Tyre, full of vanity, claimed for herself (see repetition of ‘beauty’ in vv. 3, 4, 11) what could only truly be said of Jerusalem (Psa 48:2; Lam 2:15; Ezek 16:14).

4-7 THE BEAUTY OF TYRE’S CONSTRUCTION

(4) Thy borders are in the midst of the seas, thy builders have perfected thy beauty.

There is no doubt that Tyre is beautiful. Ezekiel recognises and repeats that fact in v.4. Tyre’s domain is in the high seas – she is a great maritime power – the expression ‘in the midst of the seas’ occurs 4 times in chapter 27 – in vv.4, 25, 26, 27. Her builders have made her beauty perfect.

(5) They have made all thy ship boards of fir trees of Senir: they have taken cedars from Lebanon to make masts for thee.

Verse 5 clarifies that the builders referred to in v.4 are shipbuilders. Tyre is being metaphorically portrayed as a beautiful, well-crafted merchant ship that has been constructed using the finest materials. Ship boards probably refers to the hull, deck and cabin. These planks were ‘of fir trees,’ probably cypress, from Senir – according to Deut 3:8-9 Senir was the Amorite name for Mt. Hermon: And we took at that time out of the hand of the two kings of the Amorites the land that was on this side Jordan, from the river of Arnon unto mount Hermon; (Which Hermon the Sidonians call Sirion; and the Amorites call it Shenir). The masts are made of cedar – tall, straight, strong trees – from Lebanon. Regarding the word for masts MacLaurin (1978, p.80) comments:

‘toren: this word is found also in Is 30:17; 33:23. . . Is 30: 17 seems to refer to a solitary tree-trunk set as a signal on a hill. The word may occur in Job 39:23 with the meaning spear but this is uncertain. One thing is clear from the Hebrew, the word does not specifically mean mast; it seems rather to denote something which could serve as a flagpole or even perhaps the long stem of a spear.’

(6) Of the oaks of Bashan have they made thine oars; the company of the Ashurites have made thy benches of ivory, brought out of the isles of Chittim.

Propulsion was by oars of strong oak from Bashan. This symbolises the ability to reach far-flung places quickly. Extravagance and opulence are again emphasised with the ‘benches’ or perhaps decks (a different word for boards to that in v.5 ) inlaid with ivory from the Tyrian colony of Chittim (Cyprus). Modern translations, whether rightly or wrongly, tend to update ‘company of Ashurites’ to ‘decks of boxwood.’ Ivory was regarded as a luxury construction material (1 Kgs 22:39; Amos 3:15).

(7) Fine linen with embroidered work from Egypt was that which thou spreadest forth to be thy sail; blue and purple from the isles of Elishah was that which covered thee.

The impression of luxury continues with the sails and awnings made of the finest textiles such as woven or embroidered Egyptian linen. These have been prepared with great craftmanship and using high quality dyes from the isles of Elishah – thought to refer to southern Greece, including part of Cyprus. For blue and purple as luxury fabrics cf. Judg 8:26; Esther 1:6; 8:15; Prov 31:22; Song of Sol 3:10; 7:5; Jer 10:9; Ezek 23:6; 27:7, 16, 24.

8-9 THE PROFESSIONALISM OF TYRE’S CREW

(8) The inhabitants of Zidon and Arvad were thy mariners: thy wise men, O Tyrus, that were in thee, were thy pilots.

Tyre outsourced labour from neighbouring city-states like Sidon and Arvad but her own skilled men (nobility and senators) retained overall strategic control. Arvad, located on a island, was the most northerly Phoenician town. Peckham (2014, pp.110-111) writes concerning the history of Arvad:

‘Arvad is an island slightly to the northwest of ʿAmrit. In the Amarna period, it had no king but was a community, “the people of Arvad,” consistently aligned with Sidon in its resistance to Egyptian authority. It is mentioned together with Sidon, along with ʿArqa and Sumur, in a few biblical texts (Gen 10:17–18, Ezek 27:8) and, according to Strabo, it was resettled by Sidonians following the invasion of the Sea Peoples. Together with Sidon and Byblos, it paid tribute to Tiglath-pileser I (1114–1076 B.C.E.), and from that time on it was known to the Assyrians as an exotic place worth visiting. . . The town supplied 200 troops to the anti-Assyrian coalition at the battle of Qarqar in 853 B.C.E., and it is still noted as a source of mercenaries in Ezekiel’s description of Tyre’s dominions. . . By the mid-ninth century, Arvad was an independent kingdom, ruled by a king with the good Phoenician name Mattinbaʿl (“Gift of Baʿal”), and his successors in the eighth and seventh century (whose names were the same as his or were similarly composed with the name or epithet of the God Baʿal) saw to the survival and prosperity of the island by submitting to Assyria. . . Arvad, like Sidon, cooperated with the Assyrians and became one of their ports and eventually a formidable naval power but, unlike Sidon, it was unpretentious and easygoing and outlasted both the Assyrian and the Persian Empires.’

(9) The ancients of Gebal and the wise men thereof were in thee thy caulkers: all the ships of the sea with their mariners were in thee to occupy thy merchandise.

Tyre was able to draw upon the best talent available for every aspect of its maritime business. The elders of Gebal and its wise men are said to be ‘caulkers.’ This tells us that the ship Ezekiel envisages is carvel-built (although clinker-built ships were appearing around that time in history). Unlike clinker-built vessels, where planks overlap, carvel planks meet flush at the seams and are traditionally sealed with caulking to prevent water ingress. In Ezekiel’s time the small gap between planks would have been caulked with cotton or hemp soaked in tar and then sealed over with pitch. Gebal is another name for Byblos – a Phoenician town famous for its very clever people – they invented the Phoenician alphabet, from which most modern alphabets have descended (see Peckham (2014, p.461).

10-11 THE STRENGTH OF TYRE’S MERCENARIES

(10-11) They of Persia and of Lud and of Phut were in thine army, thy men of war: they hanged the shield and helmet in thee; they set forth thy comeliness. The men of Arvad with thine army were upon thy walls round about, and the Gammadims were in thy towers: they hanged their shields upon thy walls round about; they have made thy beauty perfect.

Tyre could afford to recruit foreign mercenaries as soldiers (army) and as security guards (upon thy walls). These are pictured as occupants of the ship. Lud is Lydia in Anatolia, Asia Minor and Put is thought to be an area on the African coast of the Red Sea (Gen 10:6; Nah 3:9). ‘Shield and helmet’ – see Ezek 23:24; 27:10; 38:5). For Arvad see comments on v.8. The location of Gammad is unknown.

Ezekiel turns from Tyre itself to give a list of those with whom Tyre does business and the goods traded.

12-25 TYRE’S TRADING NETWORK AND GOODS

Huebscher (2015, p.24) comments that the section vv.12-15 contains a list of the trading partners and the wares that were loaded on the metaphorical ship of Tyre. They are generally arranged by geographical concerns: vv 12–15, Mediterranean areas and Asia Minor; vv 16–17, Palestinian regions from south to north; vv 18–19, Syria; vv 20–22, Arabia; and vv 23–24, Mesopotamia.

(12) Tarshish – Because of the mention of metals (silver, iron, tin and lead) and the implication in Psa 72:10 that Tarshish is in the far west this may well refer to Tartessus – a Phoenician colony in Spain that was rich in metals.

(13) Javan, Tubal, and Meshech. Javan represents the Ionians or ancient Greeks (Isa 66:19; Dan 8:21, 10:20, 11:2). Tubal and Meshech were regions in central and western Asia Minor. They appear together 5 times in Ezekiel (Ezek 27:13: 32:26; 38:2, 3; 39:21). Human beings are listed, along with bronze, as a commodity.

(14) According to Huebscher (2015, p.29) Beth-Togarmah means “House of Togarmah” in Hebrew. This people group, which is mentioned in Gen 10:3, is descended from Noah’s son Japheth and grandson Gomar. They lived in Asia Minor east of Tubal, in the area of the upper Euphrates River.They were well known for their horse breeding, as evidenced by the records of the Neo-Assyrian kings Ashurbanipal and Sargon II.

(15) There are several possibilities for Dedan (mentioned again in v.20). It is generally identified as Rhodes but Huebscher (2015, p.31) concludes that it is Danuna in Anatolia. Dedan gave horns of ivory and ebony wood as payment or as ‘presents’ to Tyre. The only other occurrence of the word ’eškār is in Psa 72:10 where it describes gifts brought to Solomon from the kings of Sheba and Seba.

(16) Syria (Aram) traded with Tyre in precious stones (emeralds, coral, agate) as well as dyed fabrics and luxury textiles.

(17) Even then, just before the Babylonian conquest, Judah and the land of Israel were trading agricultural products with Tyre. Wheat of Minnith – located in in the Trans-Jordan territory of Ammon (Judg 11:33), pannag – an unknown ‘meal’ translated as millet – plus honey, oil and balm. The latter was used for medicine (cf. my post on the Balm of Gilead – Jeremiah 8:20-22). Ezekiel is still referring to ‘the land of Israel’ even though the Northern kingdom of Israel had been dismantled and thousands of inhabitants forcibly deported and relocated throughout the Assyrian empire more than 130 years earlier.

(18) Aram has already been mentioned in v.16 but this verse concentrates on premium luxury goods (white wool and fine wine of Helbon) from the area around Damascus.

(19) More luxury items from Damascus are listed; aromatic substances such as Cassia (Exod 30:24) and Calamus (Exod 30:23; Isa 43:24; Jer 6:20 ‘sweet cane’ is calamus reed) as well as wrought iron products. Note: there is a difficulty with the text at the beginning of v.19 – for technical discussion see Huebscher (2015, pp.35-36). The places Dan, Javan and Uzal have been transposed over what should have been products.

(20) Dedan (previously mentioned in v.15) is mentioned again, this time for the supply of saddlecloths for riding. This, however, may be Dedan in Arabia.

(21-24) These verses list nomadic tribes/people groups in the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula and in Mesopotamia along with the products they traded. Arabia and Kedar traded livestock; lambs, rams and goats. Sheba and Raamah traded spices, precious stones and gold. In Mesopotamia the merchants of Haran (capital of Assyria after the fall of Nineveh), Canneh, Eden, Sheba, Asshur (Assyria) and Chilmad traded all kinds of luxury goods; such as purple clothing, embroidered garments and what is reckoned to be multicoloured carpets bound in ropes and shipped in wooden boxes made of cedar. Verse 24 brings the list of trading partners and wares to a conclusion.

(25) ‘Ship of Tarshish’ is a specific term for a type of large, long-distance ocean-going vessel (1 Kgs 10:22; 22:48; Psa 48:7; Isa 2:16; 23:1, 14; 60:9). These impressive boats transported Tyre’s merchandise with the result that it was filled and ‘made very glorious’ (heavily laden) in the midst of the seas. This phrase ‘in the midst of the sea’ occurs in vv. 25, 26 and 27.

26-36 TYRE’S SHIPWRECK AND THE AFTERMATH

Tyre’s state of fullness and glory sets the stage for its shipwreck and destruction when the east wind blows and breaks it apart.

(26) DISASTER STRIKES – Thy rowers have brought thee into great waters: the east wind hath broken thee in the midst of the seas.

Guided by its own efforts (your oarsmen) Tyre meets a power that is beyond its control. The ‘east wind’ is a biblical metaphor for divine judgement (e.g. Exod 14:21; Ezek 17:10; 19:12). In this case the ‘east wind’ will come in the form of the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar.

(27) TOTAL LOSS – Thy riches, and thy fairs, thy merchandise, thy mariners, and thy pilots, thy caulkers, and the occupiers of thy merchandise, and all thy men of war, that are in thee, and in all thy company which is in the midst of thee, shall fall into the midst of the seas in the day of thy ruin.

Everyone and everything on board will sink into the ‘heart’ of the seas. All her workers, warriors and wares will perish. Tyre’s commercial empire will be broken up and her economy totally destroyed.

(28-31) THE REACTION – The suburbs shall shake at the sound of the cry of thy pilots. And all that handle the oar, the mariners, and all the pilots of the sea, shall come down from their ships, they shall stand upon the land; And shall cause their voice to be heard against thee, and shall cry bitterly, and shall cast up dust upon their heads, they shall wallow themselves in the ashes: And they shall make themselves utterly bald for thee, and gird them with sackcloth, and they shall weep for thee with bitterness of heart and bitter wailing.

The coastal areas of the mainland near Tyre will be shocked. They depend economically on Tyre so their sailors and merchants will mourn and cry bitterly, not so much out of sympathy for Tyre as for their lost profits and the financial problems Tyre’s ruin will cause for them. They are depicted as performing traditional mourning rites: casting dust on their heads, wallowing in ashes, shaving their heads, putting on sackcloth and wailing aloud. For dust/ashes cf. Job 2:12; 42:6; Jer 6:26; 25:34.

(32) A LAMENT WITHIN A LAMENT – And in their wailing they shall take up a lamentation for thee, and lament over thee, saying, What city is like Tyrus, like the destroyed in the midst of the sea?

Here we have a lament within a lament. The fall of such a powerful maritime trading empire is unprecedented. The basis of Tyre’s wealth is the sea but, ironically, that is where she will be destroyed.

(33-34) A STARK CONTRAST – When thy wares went forth out of the seas, thou filledst many people; thou didst enrich the kings of the earth with the multitude of thy riches and of thy merchandise. In the time when thou shalt be broken by the seas in the depths of the waters thy merchandise and all thy company in the midst of thee shall fall.

Verses 33-34 contrast what Tyre was with what it will soon be. It once satisfied many peoples and enriched the kings of the earth with its wares but soon, when shipwrecked, its merchandise and crew will sink into the depths of the ocean.

(35-36) THE WORLD’S REACTION AND THE FINAL VERDICT – All the inhabitants of the isles shall be astonished at thee, and their kings shall be sore afraid, they shall be troubled in their countenance. The merchants among the people shall hiss at thee; thou shalt be a terror, and never shalt be any more.

The wider world will hiss in shock, astonishment and derision at the judgement that Tyre will suffer. The nations will be relieved that they seem to have escaped but at the same time fearful lest the same doom should come upon them all. Tyre will become a byword among the nations.

The final words of Ezekiel’s lament aptly sum up Tyre’s situation: thou shalt be a terror, and never shalt be any more. (‘You will come to a dreadful end and shall be no more forever.’) This description of Tyre also occurs in Ezek 26:21 and 28:19.

Note: A question remains whether Ezekiel’s prophecies about Tyre were actually fulfilled but I hope to address that when considering chapter 29.

SUMMATION

Ezekiel 27 provides one of the most detailed descriptions of trade networks found in ancient literature but why would the Lord be interested in Tyre’s trade logs and shipping routes? Ezekiel’s catalogue of Tyre’s trading partners and wares demonstrates how the city built an empire on self-sufficiency, influence and luxury rather than righteousness for, as well as trading raw materials, agricultural products, metals, precious stones and textiles, Tyre was involved in the trafficking of slaves. The poetic funeral dirge uses the metaphor of a shipwreck to illustrate the judgement that the Lord will bring upon the city. This cautionary tale serves as a warning to all nations that even the most powerful political and commercial empires are under God’s control. It is a reminder to us all that self-glorification and the relentless pursuit of wealth without regard for God ends in ruin.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Dowler, A. and Galvin, E.R. (2011). Money, Trade and Trade Routes in Pre-Islamic North Africa. London: The British Museum.

Fleming, W. B. (1915), The History of Tyre, Columbia University Press, New York

Holt E. K., Chul, H. and Mein, A. (2015). Concerning the Nations: Essays on the Oracles Against the Nations in Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel. Bloomsbury, London

Launderville, D. (2007). Spirit and Reason: the Embodied Character of Ezekiel’s Symbolic Thinking. Baylor University Press, Waco, Texas

Lee, L. (2016). Mapping Judah’s Fate in Ezekiel’s Oracles Against the Nations. SBL Press, Atlanta

Liverani, M. (2013). The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy, Routledge, Oxon

Middlemas, J. (2012), ‘Ships and other Seafaring Vessels in the Old Testament,’ in Provan, I and Boda, M.J. (eds.). Let us go up to Zion: Essays in Honour of H.G.M. Williamson on the Occasion of his Sixty-fifth Birthday, Brill, Leiden, pp. 407-421

Peckham, B. (2014). Phoenicia: Episodes and Anecdotes from the Ancient Mediterranean, Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake, Indiana

Sader, H. (2019). The History and Archaeology of Phoenicia. SBL Press, Atlanta

Scheidel, W., Morris, I. and Saller, R.P. (2007). The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK

Schoff, W.H. (1920). The Ship “Tyre” – a Symbol of the Fate of Conquerors as Prophesied by Isaiah, Ezekiel and John and Fulfilled at Nineveh, Babylon and Rome: a Study in the Commerce of the Bible, Longmans, Green & Co, London

Van Dijk, H. J. (1968). Ezekiel’s Prophecy on Tyre (26,1-28,19): A New Approach, Pontifical Biblical Institute, Rome

Von, A., Radner, K., Moeller, N., Potts, D.T. (2023). The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East, Volume IV. Oxford University Press, USA.

JOURNAL ARTICLES

Katz, H. (2008) The Ship from Uluburun and the Ship from Tyre: An International Trade Network in the Ancient Near East, Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins, Vol.. 124, No. 2, pp. 128-142

Leonard-Fleckman, M, (2022) Lamenting Tyre (Ezekiel 27): A Unique Perspective on Judah’s Proximate Other, Hebrew Bible and Ancient Israel, Vol. 11. No. 2, pp.134-151

MacLaurin, E. C. B. (1978). The Phoenician Ship from Tyre Described in Ezekiel 27. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol.7, No.1, pp.80–83

Saur, M. (2010). Ezekiel 26-28 and the History of Tyre. Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, Vol.24, No2, pp.208–221

Udd, K.J. (2005). Prediction and Foreknowledge in Ezekiel’s Prophecy against Tyre. Tyndale Bulletin. Vol. 56, Issue 1

Vayntrub, J. (2020) Tyre’s Glory and Demise: Totalizing Description in Ezekiel 27. CBQ, Vol. 82, No. 2, pp.214– 236.

ELECTRONIC RESOURCES

Bradshaw, R.I. (2026). The City of Tyre in History and Prophecy. [online] Biblicalstudies.org.uk. Available at: https://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_tyre.html [Accessed 01 June 2026].

Huebscher, S.L. (2015). The Lament over Tyre in Ezekiel 27:1-25. [online] Academia.edu. Available at: https://www.academia.edu/7125003/2015_The_lament_over_Tyre_in_Ezekiel_27_1_25 [Accessed 01 June 2026].

Rich, S. (2013). Ship Timber as Symbol? Dendro-provenancing & Contextualizing Ancient Cedar Ship Remains from the East Mediterranean / Near East. [online] Available at: https://kuleuven.limo.libis.be/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=lirias1816006&context=SearchWebhook&vid=32KUL_KUL:Lirias&lang=en&search_scope=lirias_profile&adaptor=SearchWebhook&tab=LIRIAS&query=any,contains,LIRIAS1816006&offset=0 [Accessed 01 June 2026].

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Posted in Exposition

Divine Judgement on Tyre: Lessons from Ezekiel 26

Posted on by writtenexposition

INTRODUCTION

Chapters 25-32 form a distinct unit in the Book of Ezekiel. This unit, composed of oracles against Judah’s neighbours, lies between the prophecies given before the fall of Jerusalem (chps.1-24) and those spoken after the fall of the city (chps. 33-48). These oracles against foreign nations therefore fill the gap between the announcement that the siege of Jerusalem has begun (24:1-2) and word of the fall of the city (33:21).

Chapter 25 dealt with Ammon, Moab, Edom and Philistia. Next comes almost three chapters on Tyre (26:1-28:19), a short section on Sidon (28:20-26), then four chapters on Egypt (29:1-32:32). In Ezekiel the material about Tyre naturally falls into three or four sections:

  • It may be viewed as three sections which end with: thou shalt be a terror (26:21; 27:36; 28:19).
  • It may be viewed as four sections that begin with: the word of the Lord came unto me (26:1; 27:1; 28:1; 28:11).

Oracles against Tyre by other Old Testament prophets are at: Isa 23:1-18; Amos 1:9-10; Joel 3:4; Zech 9:3-4.

WHAT IS EZEKIEL CHAPTER 26 ABOUT?

Ezekiel chapter 26 is a prophecy concerning the ancient city of Tyre, a maritime superpower famous for its wealth and commercial prowess. The chapter is set against the background of the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar II in 586 BCE. Tyre is depicted as having rejoiced at Judah’s downfall; believing that it would enhance its own economic dominance. Ezekiel prophesies that Tyre will be judged by YHWH and be destroyed at the hands of Nebuchadnezzar, not only for celebrating the fall of Jerusalem but also for corrupt practices and arrogant dependence upon its wealth.

THE STRUCTURE OF EZEKIEL CHAPTER 26

1-2 TYRE’S CELEBRATION OF JERUSALEM’S FALL

3-6 YHWH WILL BRING MANY NATIONS AGAINST TYRE

7-14 YHWH WILL BRING NEBUCHADNEZZAR AGAINST TYRE

15-18 THE RESULTS OF TYRE’S FALL

19-21 TYRE’S DESCENT TO THE UNDERWORLD OF DEATH

EXPOSITION

TYRE’S CELEBRATION OF JERUSALEM’S FALL (1-2)

(1) After supplying a date for the prophecy Ezekiel introduces the oracles about Tyre with the prophetic word formula the word of the Lord came unto me, saying (see also 27:1; 28:1; 28:11). The date is given as the eleventh year, on the first day of the month. Which month is not specified. The eleventh year is 587/586 BCE, the eleventh year of Jehoiachin’s exile in Babylon and of Zedekiah’s reign over Judah (2 Kgs 24:15-17; 25:2; Jer 52:5).

(2) Since we are not told the month, just the day of the month, all we can say is that the date refers generally to the year of Jerusalem’s fall. If the oracle was spoken just before the fall then, in v.2, Ezekiel is predicting what Tyre will say; if spoken just after the fall of the city then he is reporting what Tyre has said. Addressing Ezekiel as ‘Son of Adam’ YHWH says; Because – thus indicating that what follows is an oracle of judgement.

While not overtly hostile towards Jerusalem, Tyre reckoned that it stood to gain financially as a result of Jerusalem’s fall. Sweeney (2013, p.133) explains:

Tyres’s elation at the downfall of Jerusalem appears to be based on the view that Jerusalem competes with Tyre for control of the eastern Mediterranean trade routes. Although Tyre was a major naval power that controlled the coastal sea lanes to Egypt as well as to Asia Minor and beyond, Israel sat astride the land routes between Egypt to the south, Asia Minor to the northwest, and Aram and Mesopotamia to the northeast.

The description of Jerusalem as the ‘door of the nations’ therefore seems to be connected with trade and the movement of goods and people.

3-6 YHWH WILL BRING MANY NATIONS AGAINST TYRE

(3 -6) Beginning with ‘therefore’ the judgement is pronounced. The remainder of chapter 6 consists of four short oracles that begin with ‘Thus saith the Lord God’ (3, 7, 15, 19). The Lord God is against Tyre because of its greed. He will therefore bring many nations to it, not for trade but for war. This may be a reference to Nebuchadnezzar’s army which was made up of soldiers from the many nations across the Babylonian empire. They will come up against Tyre like the sea casting up its waves. Since the Phoenicians were an important maritime power there are many nautical references in the oracles against Tyre.

Foreign nations will demolish the walls of Tyre and pull down its fortifications. YHWH will ensure that the dust and rubble will be swept away and the island city be left a bare rock (Tyre means ‘rock’) in the middle of the sea; a place where fishermen will lay out their nets to dry. This will come true because ‘I the Lord have spoken it’ (cf. 28:10).

Tyre’s ‘daughters’ (6, 8) are its dependent towns situated along the coast. Their inhabitants will be put to the sword and the people (of Tyre or the exiles from Israel/Judah?) will recognise that YHWH is the Lord of the nations.

7-14 YHWH WILL BRING NEBUCHADNEZZAR AGAINST TYRE

The second of the four short oracles in chapter 26 that begin with ‘Thus saith the Lord God’ (3, 7, 15, 19) commences in v.7. Ezekiel emphasises that YHWH’s reach and authority are universal by maintaining that he will use someone who is a ‘king of kings,’ to accomplish his purposes. Nebuchadnezzar and his large army with their horses and chariots will come from the north and attack Tyre’s ‘daughter’ towns on the mainland first of all, then lay siege to the island fortress of Tyre.

What follows is a typical description of a city under siege. Nebuchadnezzar will set up siege works and use battering rams and the buckler. The latter was most likely a protective roof (for the siege ramp) made with interlocking shields (something like the later Roman testudo – tortoise formation) which deflected missiles rained down upon the invaders by the city’s defenders.

Nebuchadnezzar’s troops will make a causeway and breech the walls of the city; entering it with horses, chariots and wagons which create so much noise and vibration that walls will shake and the place be covered in dust. The inhabitants will be slain, their fancy houses destroyed and the debris thrown into the sea.

The phrase ‘pillars of your strength’ (KJV thy strong garrisons) may refer to the temple of the Phoenician god Melqart, the patron deity of Tyre who will be powerless to protect the city. The Greek historian Herodotus (Histories, II, 44) claims to have visited this temple – the Greeks and Romans associated Melqart with Hercules.

The wealth of Tyre will be plundered by the invading troops. The place will be left totally desolate (the sound of songs and harps will cease – no entertainment) and the city never built again (v.14, v.21, 27:36; 28:19 ). Again it is stated that Tyre will be left a bare rock on which fishermen will spread their nets.

15-18 THE RESULTS OF TYRE’S FALL

The third of the four short oracles in chapter 26 that begin with ‘Thus saith the Lord God’ (3, 7, 15, 19) commences in v.15 and deals with the reaction of Tyre’s allies and trading partners to the fall of the city. The implications will be far reaching. In the ancient world the islands, shores and coastlands of the Mediterranean were all interconnected through trade with Tyre. Some of them may have been Phoenician colonies. Their prosperity will be badly affected by Tyre’s demise. The news of its destruction is dramatized as loud noise – the groaning of the wounded as the inhabitants are slaughtered.

The wealthy merchants who act like ‘princes of the seas’ (cf. Isa 23:8) will come down from their places of honour and power (thrones). They will ‘take off’ their fancy robes and ‘put on’ trembling. Such will be their consternation that they will tremble all the time (‘at every moment’). Removal of good clothing and lamentation were typical mourning practices at that time. Using the Kinah (or Qinah) poetic metre Ezekiel presents their lamentation in the form of a dirge (song expressing grief);

‘How you have perished,
you who were inhabited from the seas,
O city renowned,
who was mighty on the sea;
she and her inhabitants imposed their terror
on all her inhabitants!
Now the coastlands tremble
on the day of your fall,
and the coastlands that are on the sea
are dismayed at your passing.’ Ezekiel 26:17-18 CSB

19-21 TYRE’S DESCENT TO THE UNDERWORLD OF DEATH

The last of the four short oracles in chapter 26 that begin with ‘Thus saith the Lord God’ (3, 7, 15, 19) commences in v.19. Although v.7 names Nebuchadnezzar as the agent of Tyre’s destruction, in this epilogue (vv.19-21) YHWH emphasises that he – the Sovereign Lord – is actually the controlling power who will bring judgement upon Tyre. He says:

  • When I shall make (v.19)
  • When I shall bring up (v.19)
  • When I shall bring thee down (v.20)
  • and shall set thee (v.20)
  • I shall set glory (v.20)
  • I will make (v.21)

An island city, Tyre’s destruction is viewed figuratively as the result of a catastrophic flood (when I bring up the deep over you, and the great waters cover you v.19, CSB). This idea is reinforced by mention of ‘the people of old time’ i.e. the antediluvian people who perished in the waters of the Flood (cf. Isa 44:7; 2 Pet 2:5). Tyre’s ultimate humiliation is conveyed by the imagery of ‘the pit’ and ‘the low parts of the earth’ (cf. Eph 4:9). YHWH will bring Tyre to a dreadful end – I will make thee a terror – 26:21 also 27:36; 28:19. Skinner (1895, p.241-242) observes:

To the mind of Ezekiel the impossibility of her restoration lies in the fixed purpose of Jehovah, which includes, not only her destruction, but her perpetual desolation. . .The whole passage is steeped in weird poetic imagery. The “deep” suggests something more than the blue waters of the Mediterranean: it is the name of the great primeval Ocean, out of which the habitable world was fashioned, and which is used as an emblem of the irresistible judgments of God. The “pit” is the realm of the dead, Sheol, conceived as situated under the earth, where the shades of the departed drag out a feeble existence from which there is no deliverance. The idea of Sheol is a frequent subject of poetical embellishment in the later books of the Old Testament; and of this we have an example here when the prophet represents the once populous and thriving city as now a denizen of that dreary place. But the essential meaning he wishes to convey is that Tyre is numbered among the things that were. She “shall be sought, and shall not be found any more for ever,” because she has entered the dismal abode of the dead, whence there is no return to the joys and activities of the upper world.

Tyre will descend into the underworld – the realm of the dead – it will suddenly disappear and no trace of it will be found.

SUMMATION

Ezekiel 26 is the first of three chapters dealing with YHWH’s judgement upon the Phoenician city of Tyre, the most prominent maritime power of the time. Although a prophecy of historical events the chapter is also a salutary lesson about the consequences of pride, greed and celebrating the misfortunes of others. It is also a warning about the folly of prioritising material wealth over spiritual values. The prophecy also emphasises God’s sovereignty and the fact that every nation and individual must face the consequences of their actions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Hengstenberg, E. H., (1869). The Prophecies of the Prophet Ezekiel Elucidated. T and T Clark, Edinburgh

‌Rooker, M.F. and Anders, M.E. (2006). Ezekiel. Broadman & Holman, Nashville

Skinner, J. (1895). The Expositor’s Bible: The Book of Ezekiel. Hodder and Stoughton, London

Sweeney, M. A. (2013). Reading Ezekiel. Smyth & Helwys Publishing Inc. Macon, Georgia

JOURNAL ARTICLES

Saur, M. (2010). Ezekiel 26-28 and the History of Tyre. Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, Vol. 24, No.2, pp. 208–221.

ELECTRONIC RESOURCES

Eduljee, E. (2026). Herodotus Histories Book 2 – Euterpe. [online] Heritageinstitute.com. Available at: https://heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/reference/herodotus_histories2.htm [Accessed 2 Apr. 2026].

Petter, D. (2023). Ezekiel. [online] Available at: https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/commentary/ezekiel/?queryID=d063e2768890dfa3f65dd84827769e99 [Accessed 2 Apr. 2026].

Posted in Exposition

The History of a Harlot: Jerusalem’s Prostitution – Ezekiel 16:15-34

Posted on by writtenexposition

INTRODUCTION

My previous post The History of a Harlot: Jerusalem’s Early Years – Ezekiel 16:1-14 introduced an extended metaphor which was communicated by YHWH to the prophet Ezekiel with a command to deliver it to the exiles. This was in order to convince them that Jerusalem’s punishment was certain because of her abominations. In the section 1-14 Jerusalem is personified as a woman whom YHWH came across as an abandoned baby, then rescued and provided for. Once she reached maturity he married her (made a covenant with her), and dressed and adorned her to the extent that she became a beautiful queen; famous for her good looks. This all symbolises the early history of YHWH’s relationship with Israel.

JERUSALEM’S PROSTITUTION (15-34)

(15) Unfortunately v.15 begins with ‘but,’ which gives a hint that the relationship might have soured. Despite having been blessed by YHWH with beauty, prosperity and influence Jerusalem trusted in her good looks and prostituted herself with foreign nations. Unlike the previous section (1-14) where the focus is on YHWH (referring to himself as ‘I’) the next major section (15-43) focuses on Jerusalem (addressed as ‘you’). The two sections are linked by the words ‘beauty and ‘renown,’ both of which occur in v.14 and then again in v.15.

The beauty which gave her renown among the nations had been bestowed upon her by YHWH but, full of pride and self-confidence, Jerusalem abused YHWH’s trust and relied on her own beauty. It is a fact that success can change some people for the worse; this was recognised by Moses, writing in the book of Deuteronomy:

Beware that thou forget not the LORD thy God, in not keeping his commandments, and his judgements, and his statutes, which I command thee this day: Lest when thou hast eaten and art full, and hast built goodly houses, and dwelt therein; And when thy herds and thy flocks multiply, and thy silver and thy gold is multiplied, and all that thou hast is multiplied; Then thine heart be lifted up, and thou forget the LORD thy God, Deut 8:11-14

A similar observation to that about Jerusalem in v.15 is made about the king of Tyre in Ezek 28:17: ‘Thine heart was lifted up because of thy beauty.’

With new-found self confidence Jerusalem asserted her independence and ‘poured out’ (see also v.36) her harlotry (i.e. acted like a prostitute) on every passer-by. Since v.15 links her activity with her renown and in v.14 her renown was among the nations then those who received her sexual favours are the nations. This is a metaphorical way of describing alliances with foreign powers.

The allegory very much emphasises a verb meaning ‘engaging in prostitution’ and related words like ‘prostitute’ which occur some twenty times in vv.15-36. This perhaps becomes more obvious when these verses are read in a modern translation; such as the Christian Standard Bible.

16-21 ‘YOU TOOK’

Verses 16-21 specify four actions by Jerusalem in which she took gifts given to her by YHWH and used them for prostitution.

(16) And of thy garments thou didst take, and deckedst thy high places with divers colours, and playedst the harlot thereupon: the like things shall not come, neither shall it be so.

Jerusalem took the expensive embroidered ‘garments’ (clothes or coverings, also v.18) which had been presented to her by YHWH (vv.10, 13) and made shrines (bāmôt, high places) with the material. The image is of her making up a bed with these materials given by her husband and prostituting herself on them with her lovers (interestingly, the word ‘garment’ is elsewhere translated ‘bed’ – 1 Sam 19:13). This activity by Jerusalem may be a reference to the presence of cult prostitution in Israel (cf. Isa 57:7). The clause at the end of v.16 is unclear (‘such are not to come and it will not be’) but probably means something like: ‘things like this should not take place.’

(17) Thou hast also taken thy fair jewels of my gold and of my silver, which I had given thee, and madest to thyself images of men, and didst commit whoredom with them,

YHWH says that Jerusalem also took ‘thy fair jewels.’ This may also be translated ”your vessels of glory’, a term that appears again in v.39. ‘Glory’ directs the reader back to ‘crown of glory’ (beautiful crown) in v.12. Gold and silver are mentioned in v.13 where it is implied but not stated that they were supplied by YHWH. Now v.17 makes it clear that they were indeed a gift from YHWH. Jerusalem took these precious metals and made ‘for herself’ (also v.24) ‘images of men’ (male statues), idols with which she engaged in prostitution. Israel turned to idolatry.

(18-19) And tookest thine embroidered garments, and coveredst them: and thou hast set mine oil and mine incense before them. My meat also which I gave thee, fine flour, and oil, and honey, wherewith I fed thee, thou hast even set it before them for a sweet savour: and thus it was, saith the Lord GOD.

Verse 18 begins with the third ‘you took’ specifying that the woman also used the embroidered garments (10, 13, 16) to dress the masculine images that she had made from YHWH’s precious metals. In addition she offered YHWH’s oil, incense and food (my oil, my incense, my food) to these idols. The specific food items are fine flour, oil and honey.

This is the only mention of incense in the allegory. In chapter 8:11-12 Ezekiel saw 70 elders of Israel burning incense to pagan deities. There it says that a fragrant (or thick) cloud of incense arose. The next verse in this passage (v.19), using a different word for fragrant, says that Jerusalem offered food – fine flour, oil and honey – to her idols for a ‘sweet savour’ (fragrant aroma). It was believed that as such products burned a fragrant or soothing aroma arose to the nostrils of the deity being worshipped.

This idea is first mentioned in connection with sacrifices offered by Noah after the Flood (Gen 8:20-21). Note that three of the five major Levitical fire offerings (‘ōlāh, minḥāh and šelem) in the tabernacle system of worship (Lev 1-7) are said to be ‘sweet savour’ offerings (‘ōlāh, transl. Burnt or Ascending offering – Lev 1:9, 13, 17; minḥāh, transl. Grain, Meal, Meat i.e. Food or Cereal offering – Lev 2:2, 9; šelem, transl. Peace or Fellowship offering – Lev 3:5, 16). The offering of honey by fire to YHWH was prohibited (Lev 2:11).

(20-21) Moreover thou hast taken thy sons and thy daughters, whom thou hast borne unto me, and these hast thou sacrificed unto them to be devoured. Is this of thy whoredoms a small matter, That thou hast slain my children, and delivered them to cause them to pass through the fire for them?

Now YHWH accuses Jerusalem of taking her own children and giving them up to be sacrificed. ‘To them’ refers to the masculine statues of v.17 and it was to these that the woman offered up her sons and daughters (children that she had borne to YHWH) for consumption.

At the end of v.20 YHWH asks ‘Is this less than your harlotry?’ i.e. he is asking if her acts of prostitution were not enough, surely this is even worse!

She slaughtered her children whom she presented when offering them up ‘to them’ (the idols). The same verb ‘slaughtered’ (šāḥaṭ, KJV slain) is used again in Ezek 23:39 in connection with the sacrifice of children to idols. The practice of child sacrifice was associated with Canaanite religion, especially the worship of Molech. King Ahaz of Judah is said to have ‘made his son to pass through the fire,’ presumably as part of a pagan ritual (2 Kgs 16:3). That some Israelites practised this is mentioned in 2 Kgs 17:17 and Jer 32:35 cf. 2 Kgs 23:10. The Law specifically prohibited the Israelites from engaging in child sacrifice to Molech (Lev 18:21; 20:2-5).

22- 34 INGRATITUDE AND GREATER SPIRITUAL ADULTERY

(22) Jerusalem’s sin is not just idolatry but ingratitude. YHWH reminds her of her humble beginnings and of how he had rescued and provided for her (16:4-13). She has not remembered ‘the days of her youth’ (vv.22, 43) when she was ‘naked and bare’ (cf. v.70 and polluted in her own blood (cf. v.6).

(23) Upon reading the opening words of v.23 (‘then after all your evil’) one might expect a conclusion to follow but instead YHWH exclaims ‘Woe, woe, to you’ in horror at further acts of prostitution and adultery that he proceeds to list in vv.24-34.

(24-25) The accusations levelled by YHWH against Jerusalem flow from the assertion in v.15 that she trusted in her own beauty and engaged in prostitution. From vv. 16-23 that prostitution takes the form of idolatrous activity which includes the construction of shrines and the offering of sacrifices. These verses seem to concentrate on the idolatry and not so much on the sexual theme. The allegory, however, picks up the latter again in vv. 24-34 where the main idea is that Jerusalem is sexually insatiable. In vv. 24-25 the prostitution is still linked with idolatry, from v.26 the figure extends to political alliances with foreign powers.

V.24 has two accusations:

  • ‘Thou hast also built unto thee an eminent place’ – This word is not bāmôt which is translated ‘high places’ in v.16. Here the word for ‘mound’ (KJV ’eminent place’) is gaḇ; it refers to something curved, to any convex surface, e.g eyebrows in Lev 14:9, the rim (KJV nave) of a wheel, 1 Kgs 7:33; Ezek 1:18). It occurs also in v.31 and v.39.
  • ‘and hast made thee a high place in every street’ – Here the word translated ‘high place’ is rāmāh. It means a hill or high ground.

Jerusalem had constructed mounds upon which were shrines for the worship of pagan idols. The word ‘built’ in vv. 24 and 25 occurs also at v.31. These mounds were at the head of every path or square. Reḥôb means path, street, plaza or square, open area. There she ‘spread her feet to’ (had relations with) everyone that passed by. Perhaps this is a play on vv.5-6. There Jerusalem was a baby abandoned in an ‘open field’ and it was YHWH who ‘passed by’.

Jerusalem ‘multiplied her harlotry;’ this is repeated in vv. 26 and 29. Her once desirable beauty became detestable to YHWH and to others as a result of her promiscuity.

(26-29) Verse 26 again takes up the theme of prostitution with the expression ‘engaged in prostitution.’ It also occurs in vv. 15, 16 and 17 and will appear again twice in v.28. Now the prostitution is not so much cultic as political. Four nations (Egyptians, Philistines, Assyrians, Chaldeans) are mentioned in the historical order in which Jerusalem had political dealings with them. It is specifically stated that she engaged in prostitution with three of them.

1) The sons of Egypt – the Egyptians are described as neighbours and also as ‘great of flesh.’ The latter phrase is a double entendre that could either be taken to mean well-endowed or fat and flabby. As well as the repetition of ‘engaged in prostitution’ there is also repetition of the ‘multiplied your harlotry’ phrase from v.25. Several kings of Israel and Judah made it part of their diplomatic strategy to form an alliance (for political, military or economic reasons) with Egypt, one of the most powerful nations in the Ancient Near East. For example:

SOLOMON (United Monarchy)

Solomon made a marriage alliance with Pharaoh king of Egypt. He took Pharaoh’s daughter and brought her into the city of David until he had finished building his own house… 1 Kings 3:1ESV (see also 1 Kgs 9:16)

HOSHEA (Northern Kingdom – Israel) rebelled against Assyria and sought alliance with Egypt

Against him came up Shalmaneser king of Assyria. And Hoshea became his vassal and paid him tribute. But the king of Assyria found treachery in Hoshea, for he had sent messengers to So, king of Egypt, and offered no tribute to the king of Assyria, as he had done year by year. 2 Kings 17:3-4 ESV

HEZEKIAH (Southern Kingdom – Judah)

And the Rabshakeh said to them, “Say to Hezekiah, ‘Thus says the great king, the king of Assyria: On what do you rest this trust of yours? 20 Do you think that mere words are strategy and power for war? In whom do you now trust, that you have rebelled against me? Behold, you are trusting now in Egypt, that broken reed of a staff, which will pierce the hand of any man who leans on it. Such is Pharaoh king of Egypt to all who trust in him. 2 Kings 18:19-21 ESV

JEHOIAKIM (Southern Kingdom – Judah)

And Pharaoh Neco made Eliakim the son of Josiah king in the place of Josiah his father, and changed his name to Jehoiakim. But he took Jehoahaz away, and he came to Egypt and died there. And Jehoiakim gave the silver and the gold to Pharaoh, but he taxed the land to give the money according to the command of Pharaoh. He exacted the silver and the gold of the people of the land, from everyone according to his assessment, to give it to Pharaoh Neco. 2 Kings 23:34-35 ESV

ZEDEKIAH (Southern Kingdom – Judah)

But he rebelled against him by sending his ambassadors to Egypt, that they might give him horses and a large army. Will he thrive? Can one escape who does such things? Can he break the covenant and yet escape? “As I live, declares the Lord GOD, surely in the place where the king dwells who made him king, whose oath he despised, and whose covenant with him he broke, in Babylon he shall die. Pharaoh with his mighty army and great company will not help him in war, when mounds are cast up and siege walls built to cut off many lives. Ezekiel 17:15-17 ESV

Verses 22 and 23 suggested that the reasons for Jerusalem’s behaviour were her forgetfulness and wickedness. Now v.26 says that the motive was a deliberate intention to provoke her husband (YHWH). Her idolatry and foreign alliances so angered YHWH that in v.27 he draws attention to the fact (‘behold!) that he therefore ‘stretched out his hand over her’ i.e. acted against her in judgement. He reduced her lot and gave her over to the greed of her enemies the Philistines. At one stage Philistia must have annexed some of Judah’s territory.

Even the Philistines were appalled by Jerusalem’s lewd conduct, i.e. her moral and spiritual corruption. She is not said to have engaged in prostitution with the Philistines but v.28 states twice that she did so with the sons of Assyria (Assyrians), and was insatiable. That she was insatiable is repeated at the end of v.29. The kings who allied with Assyria include:

MENAHEM (Northern Kingdom – Israel)

Pul the king of Assyria came against the land, and Menahem gave Pul a thousand talents of silver, that he might help him to confirm his hold on the royal power. Menahem exacted the money from Israel, that is, from all the wealthy men, fifty shekels of silver from every man, to give to the king of Assyria. So the king of Assyria turned back and did not stay there in the land. 2 Kings 15:19-20 ESV

HOSHEA (Northern Kingdom – Israel)

Against him came up Shalmaneser king of Assyria. And Hoshea became his vassal and paid him tribute. 2 Kings 17:3 ESV

AHAZ (Southern Kingdom – Judah)

So Ahaz sent messengers to Tiglath-pileser king of Assyria, saying, “I am your servant and your son. Come up and rescue me from the hand of the king of Syria and from the hand of the king of Israel, who are attacking me.” Ahaz also took the silver and gold that was found in the house of the LORD and in the treasures of the king’s house and sent a present to the king of Assyria. 9 And the king of Assyria listened to him. 2 Kings 16:7-9 ESV – see also Isa 7:1-17

Addicted to idolatry and political entanglements Jerusalem could not be satisfied so kept moving on to other relationships. The next relationship, mentioned in vv. 28-29, is that with the sons of Chaldea, i.e. the Babylonians, the ascendant power when Ezekiel was writing. Babylonia is described as a ‘land of Canaan’ i.e. a nation of merchants.

The Canaanites, e.g. the Phoenicians (main towns Tyre and Sidon), were so famous for trading in the ancient world that the name was used as a term for trader, trafficker or merchant. For a description of their trading activities that is of great historical interest see the Lament for Tyre in Ezekiel chapter 27, especially vv.12-25. For examples of the use of Canaanite or land of Canaan for merchant see Ezek 17:5; Prov 31:24; Hos 12:7; Zeph 1:11; Zech 14:21.

(30-34) In these last few verses of this section of the allegory accusing Jerusalem of engaging in prostitution YHWH moves on from the nations to claim that Jerusalem is not like other women and, as a matter of fact, she isn’t even like other prostitutes. The word ’iššāh, meaning woman or wife occurs 3 times in these verses, 30, 32, 34.

YHWH disgustedly asks Jerusalem what is wrong with her heart that she acted like a brazen prostitute. She had a great relationship with YHWH who loved, cared and provided her so why did she have so many relationships, moving from one to another, when none of them left her satisfied? He then refers in v.31 to some of her activities that have already been described in vv. 15-29:

  • In that thou buildest thine eminent place (gab) in the head of every way –
  • and makest thine high place (rāmāh) in every street;
  • and hast not been as a harlot, in that thou scornest hire;

The verb ‘to build’ is the same as that used in vv.24 and 25. ‘At the head of every way’ is also repeated from v.25a, there it is said of the rāmāh but here in v.31 of the gab.

Unlike other prostitutes who accept payment for their services Jerusalem was so depraved and desperate that she scoffed at payment. The word ’eṯnan, meaning a prostitute’s pay (KJV, hire or reward), occurs in v.31, v.34 twice and in v.41.

In v.32 , quite far on in the allegory the verb ‘commit adultery’ occurs (also in v.38. ‘break wedlock’ KJV). Like a woman (wife) who commits adultery Jerusalem takes strangers instead of her husband. She has therefore broken the covenant obligations of v.8.

Verse 33 quickly returns to the notion of prostitution and says that ‘they’ (i.e. the strangers) always give gifts to prostitutes (i.e. pay their fee) but Jerusalem gives presents to (i.e. bribes) her lovers ‘on every side’ that they may come ‘into’ her. This is another double entendre in the allegory; the preposition ’el can indicate motion toward (hence KJV ‘unto’) but can also mean ‘into.’ It is used of sexual intercourse in Gen 16:2 and Num 25:1. This is a metaphorical reference to Israel and Judah paying tribute as vassal states to the dominant powers of the time – the nations ‘on every side’ (i.e. all around).

V.34 makes the point that Jerusalem is not a typical female prostitute:

  • none followeth thee to commit whoredoms – none of the neighbouring states were interested in forming an alliance with Jerusalem.
  • and in that thou givest a reward, and no reward is given unto thee – In her quest for political security Jerusalem had to pay tribute to other states.

SUMMATION

In the Ezekiel 16:15-34 section of the allegory YHWH, through Ezekiel, accuses Jerusalem of pride leading to prostitution with foreign nations. Despite having experienced YHWH’s provision and protection the nation of Israel/ Judah was unfaithful. This reflects the history of Israel during the period of the judges and especially under the monarchy. The turning to idolatry and alliances with pagan states constituting spiritual adultery began in earnest with Solomon during the united monarchy. This state of affairs continued under the kings of both Israel and Judah when the monarchy divided after his death. Their dependence upon foreign nations rather than YHWH did not work out well for Israel and Judah. The Northern Kingdom (Israel) fell to Assyria in 722 BCE and the Southern Kingdom (Judah) to Babylon in 586/7 BCE. The next section of the allegory (vv. 35-43) is about Jerusalem’s judgement.

Posted in Exposition

NEHEMIAH 13:15-31

Posted on by writtenexposition

13:15-22 RESTORATION OF SABBATH OBSERVANCE

Nehemiah finds that in his absence (‘in those days’) some in Judah have not been observing the Sabbath, but engaging in trade and commerce on the holy day. The offenders listed were involved in the main industry – agriculture – and included wine makers, farmers, fruit growers and haulage operatives. The word translated ‘sheaves’ means ‘heaps’ and need not be restricted to grain. As well as violating the command not to work, the loading and transportation of goods by donkey into Jerusalem also transgressed the concept of no (or very limited) travel on the Sabbath (Ex 16:29; Acts 1:12). Sabbath observance is prescribed in the one of the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:8-11; 31:12-17) and was viewed by Isaiah (56:1-8) as something that results in blessing. The prophets Jeremiah (17:19-27), Ezekiel (20:12-24) and Amos (8:4-5) identified profanation of the Sabbath as a cause of the woes that befell the Israelites; because they had became just like the heathens around them.

Nehemiah also observes that merchants from Tyre who had set up a trading colony in Jerusalem were selling fish and all kinds of wares to the local people on the Sabbath.

THE PHOENICIAN PORT OF TYRE

Tyre was an important port for the Phoenicians, a nation famous in ancient times for seafaring and commerce. Just as the Arabs with their camel trains dominated the transportation of goods over land so the Phoenician merchant navy dominated the shipping routes; conveying goods to and from the three continents (Africa, Asia and Europe) bordering the Mediterranean. They carried not only seawater fish from the Mediterranean and freshwater fish from the Nile but also an abundance of other foodstuffs, exported in cylindrical clay jars. These included: fish paste, pine nuts, olives, olive oil, wine, honey and grain. They shipped luxury goods like furniture, metal tableware (e.g. decorated bowls, candelabra), purple dye, and carved ivories, and were also experts in the delivery of bulk timber by sea (1 Kgs 5:9; 1 Chron 22:4; 2 Chron 2:3-16; Ezra 3:7). The prowess of the Phoenicians (Tyre and Sidon) as merchants and human traffickers is acknowledged by the Old Testament Hebrew prophets (Isa 23:1-8, 17-18; Ezekiel 27:1-36; 28:1-5; Joel 3:4-7; Amos 1:9). Ezekiel chapter 27 is of special historical interest because it not only gives a list of commodities traded by the Tyrians but also details the many and widespread locations where they did business.

NEHEMIAH PROMOTES SABBATH OBSERVANCE

Nehemiah confronts the Judaean nobles and accuses them of profaning the Sabbath (for this expression see: Neh 13:17, 18; Ezek 20:16, 21, 24, ; 22:8; 23:38) and adding to God’s wrath against them. He warns them about God’s punishment (13:18). He then institutes practical measures to enforce Sabbath observance and ensure the sanctity of the day.

  • Nehemiah closes the gates of Jerusalem on the Sabbath and initially has his servants guard them so that no burden could be carried into the city.
  • Some of the merchants camp outside the city gates so that the locals can go out and buy from them. Nehemiah tells them to leave or face forcible removal. They leave.
  • Nehemiah then hands over responsibility for guarding to gates to the Levites, after they purify themselves for the Sabbath.

13:22 Nehemiah again asks God to take note of his actions and ‘spare’ (have compassion on) him.

13:23-29 PROBLEM OF EXOGAMOUS MARRIAGES

Upon his return from Persia Nehemiah discovers that in his absence an old issue has resurfaced. Some Israelite men have married foreign women, contrary to God’s law (Deut 23:3-6)and the covenant that had been signed in chapter ten. One of the points of that covenant was the cessation of exogamous marriage (10:30). Nehemiah cites two specific examples of the problem.

1) Half the children spoke (Aramaic?) in a foreign dialect and could not speak ‘the language of the Jews’ i.e. Hebrew. Nehemiah could easily distinguish between the speech of children of Ashdodite mothers and that of children from all Jewish households. He was concerned about ungodly foreign cultural influence and was also very much aware that Jewish national identity was bound up with the worship of God. Since Hebrew was the language of the Jewish religion children who did not speak it could not be taught or understand the scriptures. Men who had married foreign wives were not only neglecting the Hebrew language, they were jeopardizing the purity of the Jewish religion.

Nehemiah therefore takes the offenders to court and challenges their actions. He calls down the curses of the broken covenant upon them, subjects them to a public shaming ritual (see Isa 50:6) and makes them take an oath once again not to marry their children off to foreigners. The reason (vv. 26-27) given for this is the sin of Solomon. In spite of the fact that God loved him (2 Sam 12:24-25) and made him king over all Israel (1 Kgs 4:1) Solomon entered into diplomatic marriages with foreign wives (1 Kgs 11:1-10; 2 Chron 8:11) who led him away from the true worship of Yahweh.

2) Jehoiada, son or grandson of the High Priest Eliashib, had married the daughter of Sanballat the Horonite, who was an enemy of Nehemiah (2:19; 4:1-2, 7; 6:1-9, 14) and a pagan. In the regulations recorded in Lev 21:10-15 the high priest was required to ‘take a virgin of his own people to wife’. In practical terms this prohibition against marrying a foreign wife probably extended to the sons and grandsons of a high priest since they could possibly become high priest in the future. Nehemiah expelled Jehoiada from Judea.

Nehemiah’s prayer at the end of this section (v29) is not about himself but he instead directs his prayer against the high priestly family who, because of intermarriage, had set a bad example to the people, defiled the priesthood and broken the covenant of 10:29-30.

13:30-31 SUMMARY OF NEHEMIAH’S CULTIC REFORMS

Nehemiah ends his memoir by summarizing his main achievements. He lists these as action taken against foreign marriages (10:30; 13:23ff), reorganisation of the temple duties of the priests and Levites (10:37-39; 12:44-47; 13:12-13), the institution of a wood offering (10:34) and the revival/rescheduling of the firstfruits offering (10:35-37).

SUMMATION

Nehemiah chapter thirteen emphasizes the need for continual vigilance in upholding God’s standards and reminds us that spiritual renewal is an ongoing process. The chapter underscores the importance of maintaining purity, honouring the Lord’s demands, and the people of God keeping separate from unholy influences. In spite of Nehemiah’s accomplishments chapter thirteen ends on a somewhat negative note. Sadly, the Israelites do not seem to have shared Nehemiah’s enthusiasm for the things of God. They yielded to secular and religious pressure from outside their community and, despite pledging ‘to walk in God’s law’ (10:29), they abandoned their commitments concerning intermarriage (10:30), Sabbath observance (10:31), and support of the Temple service (10:37-39) soon after Nehemiah left for Persia.

Chapter thirteen records Nehemiah’s final efforts to restore Jerusalem’s spiritual and moral fabric, and provides us with valuable examples of active leadership, faithfulness, and a timely warning about the possibility of departure from the will of God.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Carson, D.A. (2018). NIV Biblical Theology Study Bible : Follow God’s Redemptive Plan as it Unfolds Throughout Scripture [Previously published as NIV Zondervan Study Bible]. Grand Rapids, Mi: Zondervan.

Grabbe, L.L. (2012). An introduction to Second Temple Judaism : History and Religion of the Jews in the time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel and Jesus. London Bloomsbury.

Knut Larson, Anders, M. and Dahlen, K. (2005). Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther. Nashville, Tenn. Broadman & Holman C.

López-Ruiz C. and Doak, B.R. (2019). The Oxford Handbook of the Phoenician and Punic Mediterranean. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Ruckman, P.S. (2004). The Books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther. (The Bible Believer’s Commentary Series).

JOURNAL ARTICLES

Berlin, A.M. (1997). From Monarchy to Markets: The Phoenicians in Hellenistic Palestine. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 306, pp.75–88. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/1357550.

Master, D.M. (2014). Economy and Exchange in the Iron Age Kingdoms of the Southern Levant. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 372, pp.81–97. doi:https://doi.org/10.5615/bullamerschoorie.372.0081.

Noonan, B.J. (2011). Did Nehemiah Own Tyrian Goods? Trade between Judea and Phoenicia during the Achaemenid Period. Journal of Biblical Literature, 130(2), pp.281–298. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/41304201.

Nehemiah 13:1-3

Nehemiah 13:4-14